Production and Distribution of Glass Objects in Late Antique Thessaloniki (3rd-7th c. A.D.)
Παραγωγή ϰαι διανομή των γυάλινων αντιϰειμένων στην Θεσσαλονίϰη ϰατά την 'ϒστερη Αρχαιότητα (3ος-7ος αι. μ.Χ.)
p. 365-390
Résumé
The 20th c. excavations in Thessaloniki yielded very huge amounts of various glass finds. The aim of this paper is to replace these objects within the commercial and economic frame of Late Antiquity. They attest the importance of Thessaloniki’s harbour, where arrived goods from all the Eastern Mediterranean. Imported glass artefacts apparently were used as prototypes for a local production. Few glass workshops are documented by excavations and commented here from the topographical and technological point of view: they are replaced in the typology of workshops known from other Mediterranean towns and their production is analysed (repertoire, origin of the models, diffusion into the nearby Balkan regions).
Κατά τις ανασκαφές του 20ου αι. στη Θεσσαλονίκη αποκαλύφθηκε σημαντικός αριθμός γυάλινων ευρημάτων πάσης φύσεως. Τα ευρήματα αυτά και η ένταξή τους στα γενικότερα εμπορικά, οικονομικά τεκταινόμενα της 'ϒστερης Αρχαιότητας αποτελούν το θέμα της παρούσας τοποθέτησης. Τα αντικείμενα αυτά μαρτυρούν την σπουδαιότητα του λιμανιού της πόλης, στο οποίο έφταναν εμπορεύματα από ολόκληρη την ανατολική Μεσόγειο και τα οποία, όπως φαίνεται, αποτέλεσαν τα πρότυπα της τοπικής παραγωγής. Ακόμη, παρουσιάζονται τα τοπικά υαλουργεία, που εντοπίστηκαν ανασκαφικά, εξετάζονται με βάση τα χωροταξικά και τεχνολογικά στοιχεία και εντάσσονται στις αντίστοιχες ομάδες υαλουργείων, γνωστών από άλλες πόλεις της Μεσογείου. Τέλος, τύποι αγγείων που βρέθηκαν στις ανασκαφές των υαλουργείων, αλλά και άλλοι που επιχωριάζουν στη Θεσσαλονίκη εξετάζονται ως πιθανά τοπικά προϊόντα, αναζητούνται τα πρότυπά τους και η διάδοσή τους στις κοντινές βαλκανικές περιοχές.
Texte intégral
1The emergence of glass blowing, a technological revolution which took place around the early 1st c. B.C. in the Levantine coast, led, by mid 1st c. A.D., to a gradual fall of prices of glass vessels that made possible their use to wider social strata of the Eastern Mediterranean1. The same occurred in Thessaloniki, an important trade-hub located on the Via Egnatia, the Roman road connecting Byzantium with Dyrrhachium, and facilitating trade between Europe and Asia, and the most important harbor of Macedonia, from where goods from all over Mediterranean were imported to its hinterland and further north to central Balkans. The city became the capital of one of the four Roman districts of Macedonia and for a short time in the 1st century B.C., all the Greek provinces came under Thessaloniki, while at the end of the 4th c. it was chosen by Galerius for his imperial capital; and later in the 4th c. it became the capital of the new Prefecture of Illyricum.
1. Glass working in Thessaloniki
2Remains that can be connected to artisanal activities in Thessaloniki have been discovered in the following areas (fig. 1):
in urban public areas, which lost their original function and were occupied by craftsmen, like in the Roman Forum2 or in the big bathhouse under the Acheropoietos’ basilica3 – along the eastern4 and western5 city walls;
outside the city walls, in the eastern6 and western7 necropoleis. Workshops that were not aggravating the surrounding areas or that were not presenting any kind of danger for the health and safety of their neighbors8 were active in several parts of the city9.
Fig. 1: Glass Workshops of Late Antique Thessaloniki.

3So far, no remains of glass workshop’ structures have been found in Thessaloniki and its surroundings. Glass workshops’ buildings, just like other workshops, were usually plain and sloppy constructions, made of cheap brittle material. They often re-used standing walls of older abandoned buildings, presenting thus only partly new constructions. Unsurprisingly, this fact makes their identification quite difficult. Usually, what characterize the use of these constructions are either movable finds remains of the production or immovable built constructions, like kilns or tanks. However, as glass was recycled, only small quantities of it were left on site offering slight evidences of the workshop’s activity. This phenomenon shows a notable contrast with what we are used for pottery and metal workshops where huge quantities of deformed vessels and slag are usually found. Moreover, secondary glass furnaces, which were small constructions meant to be used only for a short period of time, are often damaged by long-lasting exposure to high temperatures necessary for glass working. Most of them are not preserved well enough to offer clear information on their shape, size and function.
4Nevertheless, there are presumptive evidences, that make probable the operation of at least three glass workshops within or near the city between the 4th and the 6th c. A.D.10 These movable finds have been unearthed in different parts of the city, in the necropoleis, where several craftsmen were active, and in urban public spaces following their abandonments or changes in their original functions. In several cities of the Roman Empire, just like in Thessaloniki, excavations have shown that glassworkers – like other craftsmen – were occupying and using every free spot of the city where they could house their professional activities. Big, abandoned, and crumbly public buildings, mainly in the city centers11, like the bathhouse underneath the Acheiropoietos Basilica, are located in many cities throughout the Roman empire12. In some cities, this led to the creation of “quarters” containing several workshops, like the one implanted in the abandoned Roman Forum of Thessaloniki. It seems that it was something quite common in Late Antiquity13 although some examples are known from the Imperial period. Finally, glass workshops built near city walls (intra or extra muros) were also found in other Roman cities, thus providing parallels to our case study14.
5Namely, remains of glass working activity in Thessaloniki are the following:
— The S. Georgiadis plot, East of the Acheiropoietos basilica (fig. 2-5)
Fig. 2: Remains of glassworking activity from Acheiropoietos’ workshop.

Fig. 5: Remains of glassworking activity from Acheiropoietos’ workshop.

6Remains of glass working activities were unearthed on a site housing a former Roman public bathhouse15 located east of the mid-5th c. Acheropoietos’ basilica16. The finds are:
parts of a circular kiln with internal diameter ca. 30-40 cm,
fragments of a roughly semi-circular melting pot coated with several layers of glass and clay17 (fig. 3-4),
an iron tool18,
and a 4th or 5th c. A.D. conical glass base19.
Fig. 3: Melting pot from Acheiropoietos’ workshop.

Fig. 4: Drawing of the melting pot from Acheiropoietos’ workshop.

7A small part of what seems to be a glass moil, with a diameter ca. 2,5 cm, was also uncovered in this excavation.
8Although no exact dating for the workshop can be suggested, it seems logical to place it somewhere in the 5th c. A.D., if we take into account the fact that the ruins of the abandoned bathhouse were used before the basilica was erected, or even during the erection of the monument. In any case, it should be mentioned that it is also possible that the finds were just discarded on the site, and were originally used in a near-by plot.
— The Roman Forum (fig. 6-7)
9Excavations undertaken in 1960’s for the erection of the Thessaloniki’s court house, that were continued in the 1990’s, revealed vestiges of the city’s Roman Forum20. When the complex lost its official public character in the late 4th c. A.D., it gradually started to be occupied by craftsmen and artisans of several specialties21. Parts of a furnace, small testing droplets and deformed shards of olive-green glass were found in various amounts during the works. Similar finds had been already unearthed in 1962 and 1966 during previous excavations. The remains cannot be dated with any precision. It can only be assumed that they belong to the late 4th-early 6th c. period, when several craftsmen were active on the forum site.
Fig. 6: Remains of glassworking activity from the Roman Forum.

Fig. 7: Remains of glassworking activity from the Roman Forum.

— Theological Department’s plot (fig. 8)
10A building characterized as a “warehouse” was discovered in 1965 during the excavations made for the building of the Theological Department of the Aristotle University. The structure met consequent building phases. It was dated to the early Byzantine period22, at least partly, as its walls were founded on graves dated mainly of the Tetrarchs period and fewer of the Justinian’s reign23. Lamp moulds,24 which are dated between the second half of the 3rd c. and the end of the 4th c. A.D, were found enwalled in its walls. This fact, along with the profiles of the remaining pottery finds, led to the conclusion that it was a lamp-making workshop.
Fig. 8: Remains of glassworking activity from the Theological Department.

11In the same area, movable finds of glass working activity were also discovered. They include:
testing droplets and deformed chunks of greenish glass;
clay masses with consequent layers of glass on one of its sides, possibly part of a kiln;
decolorized, slightly greenish moil (final part of the glass blob, which is cut off when the rim of the vessel is made. It is attached to the cane and it is short, thick and cylindrical, preserving only the slightest part of its conical side);
and finally, many fragments of glass vessels which were probably collected there for melting.
12Most of these fragments are small dark green body shards of unidentifiable vessel shapes. However, some are recognizable and belong to the late 4th and 5th c. repertoire. The forms that can be recognized are the following (fig. 9):
Conical bases, probably from stemmed beakers (fig. 9.α). They have been found in dozens, and in different sizes and shades of greenish and bluish glass. In very few cases, small handles have been found on body shards, possibly in connection with this form, or with bowls, described as form “b”25.
Shards of deep hemispherical bowls with sharp cut-offrim (fig. 9.β). Approximately the same amount as “b” has been found26.
Flat or rounded bases from a narrow cylindrical vessel, probably a spear-shaped lamp27 (fig. 9.γ), also known in Greek literature as ουρίαχοι28. Several fragments came up to light.
Solid base knobs, probably belonging to conical vessels, most probably lamps29 (fig. 9. δ).
Shards of olive-green bases, most probably parts of ovoid, short necked, funnel-mouthed vessels with fire polished rim30 (fig. 9.ε).
Fragments of a form of 4th or 5th c. A.D. funnel-mouthed vessels31 (fig. 9.στ).
Fig. 9: Forms of vessels found at the site of the Theological Department.

13According to the glass finds and the numismatic evidence, it seems that the period of activity of the workshop stretches between the early 4th c., when the site was intensively used for burials, and most probably the late 5th or the first half of the 6th c. A.D.32. The types of vessels found on the site make quite probable the assumption that mostly lamps were made in situ.
14In most cases, the nature and the size of the glass workshop remains excavated in Thessaloniki do not allow us to determine the nature of their products, with sole exemption the Theological Department workshop. There, due to the great number of similar vessels found together, it can be supposed that four types of lamps were produced: stemmed beakers, spear-shaped lamps, handless or handled hemisphe-rical bowls, and cylindrical beakers with conical or cylindrical bottom.
15As a general conclusion, it could be said that the glass workshop remains of Thessaloniki are exclusively post 4th c. A.D. This conclusion agrees with the glass objects found in other excavations conducted in the city. From these finds, it becomes clear that glass vessels were not very numerous in habitation areas during the 1st and 2nd c. A.D, apart of a rich complex of glass tableware found in the ruins of a public bath house adjoined to the city’s forum33. Furthermore, the majo-rity of them can easily be identified as imports from well known Italian and eastern Mediterranean centers. This picture does not correspond to our actual know-ledge on glass history, where it is generally admitted that glass production spread already in the mid, or late 1st c. A.D. and possibly is a distortion of the reality, which is reflecting the salvage and therefore segmental character of the excavations conducted in the city. This is the period when Thessaloniki gradually enters the international political scene, strengthens its commercial positions, sees a population growth34, and has a more cosmopolitan35 character that can be recognized in the buildings and the products circulating in the city. Hence, the fact that no second-and third-century workshops were found, may also result of the accidental character of salvage excavations, which provided all the information presented here. Finally, from the 3rd c. onwards, the absolute number of glass vessels increases drastically, while simultaneously the number of plain utilitarian vessels, unlikely to be imported from remote areas, is multiplied. From this period onwards appear the first indications of local glass working activity, a fact that can be connected with the population growth and the economic development of Thessaloniki, which possessed then a prominent position in the political and economical scene of the Empire. Raw material, according to its appearance, color and quality, might have been partly imported from the Syro-Palestinian primary workshops, and partly acquired from recycling of broken objects, which must have been collected quite thoroughly.
2. Glass vessels repertoire and functions in Thessaloniki
16Our knowledge on the repertoire of glass vessels within the period under examination comes mainly from funerary contexts and can be summed up as follows:36 During the late 2nd and the 3rd c., the number of glass finds and shapes found in Thessaloniki diminished considerably compared to the 1st c. material. Tableware like jugs, bottles and flasks are very frequent. Unguentaria, as well as some “baby-feeders”, which appear to be used and produced in the 4th c., are also found. Around the end of the 2nd c. and during the 3rd c. A.D., new forms of flasks, beakers and unguentaria appear (fig. 10).
Fig. 10: 2nd-3rd c. Glass vessels.

17From the middle of the 3rd c. onwards, the use of glass spreads out more, now mostly exploited in the production of big-sized vessels, amphorisks, jugs and bottles (fig. 11). These forms appeared in the middle of the 3rd c. and seem to have lasted until the beginning of the 5th c. A.D.
Fig. 11: Late 3rd c. Glass vessels.

18Tall tableware vessels also appear in great numbers during this period: jugs, amphorisks, spherical and pear-shaped bottles, ribbed and plain ones, as well as many forms of flasks encounter. Some of these forms have been assumed to be local products37. The prevailing profiles of drinking vessels are mainly hemispherical bowls, while ovular beakers appear sporadically.
19Concerning the unguentaria, they appear as miniature versions of tableware vessels. At the same time, cubical and double-faced mold-blown unguentaria appear. All these forms survived throughout the 4th c. A.D.
20Wide use of glass vessels continues within the 4th c. The main repertoire appears to be of Syro-Palestinian origin or imitates Syro-Palestinian products. Vessels for serving liquids appear in a great variety of forms, namely jugs and flasks. Drinking vessels, on the other hand, consist of bowls and beakers which probably were also used as lamps (fig. 12). Unguentaria appear in a great diversity of sizes and forms, like amphorisks, craterisks, juglets, and handless ones. Glass was also used for the production of lamps38 (fig. 13).
Fig. 12: 4th c. Glass vessels.

Fig. 13: 4th c. Glass vessels.

21A special group of ware consists of octagonal plain jugs with oblique ribbing, which appear to be local products of the late 4th-5th c. A.D.39 (fig. 13).
22In the late 4th and early 5th c., conical beakers, indented bowls and cylindrical flasks appear, possibly originating from the north-western provinces (fig. 14).
Fig. 14: 4th c. Glass vessels, Western Tableware.

23During the 5th and 6th c., several forms from the 4th c. repertoire survived, like jugs, bottles, and drinking vessels. Some of the latter were also used as lamps. In any case, the well known stemmed beakers prevail. The other glass lamps shapes known from Thessaloniki are well documented too and follow the other Mediterranean sites repertoire40 (fig. 15).
Fig. 15: 5th-6th c. Glass vessels.

24Unfortunately, examples of vessels found in domestic contexts are very few and mostly date to the second half of the 4th and the 5th c. A.D. Tableware, e. g., jugs and bowls, prevails. Some of them bear engraved decoration showing their use by wealthier strata of the local society. These engraved vessels, which are most probably of Italian origin, witness also to the relationships of Thessaloniki with Rome and the Italian peninsula in general. Although pagan and Christian themes occur on some objects, geometrical motives are more numerous. The most interesting piece is a 4th century spherical bottle41 which depicts an incised hunting scene42 with a partly preserved salutation of the owner and his fellows.43 All the other decorated vessels are open-shaped, i.e. shallow bowls and plates.44 Parts of indiscernible scenes, geometrical motives and salutation inscriptions are partly preserved on them.45
25Generally speaking about decoration of glass vessels, taking in account funerary contexts as well as domestic contexts, we may say that almost exclusively free blown, plain, and undecorated vessels were used. Very few fully mold-blown or, more often, dip moldblown vessels occur. The latter are concentrated mainly in the 4th-5th c A.D. contexts, dip mold-blown ribbing being a cheap decorative technique. Very few vessels dated from the late 3rd to the 5th c. A.D. are engraved. Some bear simple horizontal bands, while a handful bears composite figurative motives. An even smaller number of vessels bears applied decoration mainly consisting of simple threads or dots, sole or in clusters of contrasting colors, while only a couple of vessels were adorned with pinching.
26Looking at shapes, we can see that in the 2nd and in the beginning of the 3rd c. A.D., the total amount of shapes and vessels diminished significantly compared to that of the 1st c. A.D. Table wares are still prevailing, but the number of vessels for serving liquids increased, the number of unguentaria drastically diminished, and spouted vessels appeared for the first time. Among the vessels of this period, those whose origin can be traced appear to be western product. From the middle of the 3rd until the early 5th c. A.D., distribution of glass vessels recovers. A great number of unguentaria appear, although tableware continues to prevail. Few transportation vessels and some lamps are also present. Vessels of this period cover 50% of the total number of forms and 50% of the total number of vessels discussed here. It seems that imports from the East are considerable, especially the one coming from the Syro-Palestinian coast, while at the same time the total number of local products also rises considerably. During the 5th and 6th c. A.D., lamps dominate among the indeed quite scarce number of finds. They represent one of the main needs and were produced throughout the Byzantine era.
27As it has already been said, the biggest part of the existing glass objects was found in cemeteries. Therefore, the surviving samples offer a good idea of the shapes repertoire used for funerary practices either as grave goods or objects for memorial ceremonies.46 There are other uses of glass, like in medicine or alchemy, once common, but very rare and difficult to identify in the excavations. We must rely on the scant and circumstantial finds supported by the information preserved in pictorial and written sources. Furthermore, glass vessels were covering just a small part of the everyday uses and needs, which were mainly covered by clay vessels. Glass vessels were mainly used by wealthier people or by users that ordinarily covered their needs with clay and wooden vessels.
28Applying our scarce knowledge on glass price at the beginning of the 4th c.,47 we can calculate that a glass bottle would cost 10 times the price of a similar ceramic vessel, approximately 5 to 10 denarii, which equal the price of a worker’s meal or 1/5 to 1/3 of his daily wages.48 It would be interesting to add that glass vessels, or at least the plain ones, were sold by the pound, just like glass tesserae and window panes. The craftitself offers no added values to the final product. It is thus quite easy to understand that glass was favored for some uses such as unguentaria and medicine receptacles. On the other hand, they were exceptionally used as storage vessels or as vessels for long-distance trade. In the case of tableware, glass, clay and metal vessels were used side-by-side in banquets, or interchanged accordingly to what was socially dictated for every instance.
3. Jewelry
29Finds from Thessaloniki can mainly be dated between the late 3rd and the 6th c. A.D.49 All shapes of beads and spacers known from other sites are present among the finds. Several methods of bead forming are attested and exhibit obvious connections with the eastern Mediterranean50 and central Europe51 production centers. Variants of bigger beads and pendants were used as central pieces for necklaces.52 Simple glass beads in striking colors were occasionally used in earrings as stone substitutes53.
30Glass bracelets appear in Macedonia for the first time around the 3rd c. A.D. They were made of dark-colored glass, usually called black glass, although, in fact, they are purple or dark-green in color.54 They appear in different cross-sections, some of them being with a seam and others without, made with centrifugal rotation of a hot mass of glass.55 The majority is plain, but few examples bear pressed, geometrical decoration, displaying the form of an oblique ribbing. They were usually quite wide, ca 6-7 cm, and probably worn around the wrists or at the forearm. They are substitutes of similar expensive jewelry, most probably imitating jet prototypes, which were very much in fashion during the 4th c. A.D.56
31Late Antique glass rings are not attested in the greater Thessaloniki area. Glass gems do occur in Thessaloniki, but were generally used as substitutes for semi-precious stones for rings, both in cheaper creations57 or in golden elaborate examples.58 Late Antique examples of glass ring gems are usually plain, small, lenticular or plano-convex pieces, very similar to the ancient Greek and early Roman gaming pieces, which are not found in Late Antique graves or strata.
32Enamels appear only sporadically, either in the form of micro-mosaic59 or as a single layer of glass covering a bigger area.60
33In glass jewelry from Thessaloniki, we recognize imports and various prototypes deriving from the Levantine coast, an aspect already observed in glass vessels. However, a different aesthetical approach can be discerned in some Thessalonian finds: a tendency towards polychromy with the use of several different and smaller beads, sometimes in a great amount, which was not so frequent in the East. This tradition may be connected with local, Balkan or Western customs. We can assume that part of the jewelry was locally produced. It was in fact very easy to produce glass beads and bracelets in simple open furnaces or even braziers. It is not impossible that some of the productions were produced in glass workshops mainly engaged in the production of vessels.
4. Window Panes
34The use of glass window panes, even circumstantial, is well attested from the 1st c. A.D.61 In Thessaloniki though, unlike in other Macedonian sites like Philippi,62 very few finds are published. The known examples date around the 4th c. A.D.63 They show that the muff-process, also called cylinder’s technique, was the prevailing one, just like elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
5. Mosaics
35The biggest need for glass in Late Antique Thessaloniki has to be put in association with floor and mural mosaic’s craft. Tesserae were often cut on-site from big glass cakes,64 for which we have unfortunately no information about the place of production, i.e. wether they were made in the city, as it appears to be logical for big urban centers like Thessaloniki, or if they were imported “prefabricated” from remote production centers.65 Large glass commissions certainly existed, especially when we take a look at the Rotunda’s decoration for which ca 13 tons of glass were needed. The Rotonda66 is only one of the four (Acheiropoietos67, St. Demetrios68 and the Latomou monastery69) surviving early-Christian monuments of the city, that were decorated with mosaics. Therefore, it becomes evident that the needs for glass in the city were indeed very big.
36Glass working and distribution of glass products in Late Antique Thessaloniki appear to be quite similar to other major Mediterranean urban centers of that time. The number of people using glass, in one or other form, was growing constantly as its price was quite low. Local workshops were active covering partly the needs of the local market. Glass was used there by architects for glazing windows and decorating the walls of public buildings. Lamps were massively used to light the interiors of both public and private spaces. People of almost all social strata used glass articles to adorn themselves or their possessions. But most of all, glass in the form of vessels found its place in households: on the table, to pour and drink from it, but also for transporting and preserving drinks, holy substances, medicaments, cosmetics and ointments.
Bibliographie
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Notes de bas de page
1 Israeli 1991, pp. 46-55, Israeli 2003, pp. 54-58. Stern 1999, pp. 441-484, esp. pp. 446-47.
2 Pottery workshops were active from the end of the 3rd c. B.C. until the 1st c. A.D. at the site where later the Roman Forum was erected (Valavanidou 2001, pp. 119-123. Boli, Skiaradesis 2001, p. 91. Adam Veleni 2003, p. 146). Several artisans like potters, blacksmiths, bone carvers, dyers of threads and textiles used (the site of) the Forum for their professional activities during the 5th and 6th c. A.D., when it had already lost its official character. (Vitti 1996, pp. 102-103. Valavanidou 2001, pp. 123, 127-129). Finally, the society (σύλλογος) of purple dyers (πορφυροβάφοι), the one of the “eighteenth” (της οκτωκαιδεκατης) must had been in the proximity of the Forum. (IG X. 2, 291. Comments on the topic by Robert 1937, p. 535 note 3. Vitti 1996, pp. 78-79).
3 Bakirtzis 1983, pp. 310-329, with bibliography.
4 An extended complex of workshops was active during the 2nd c. B.C.-1st c. A.D. under the North Stoa of the Galerius’ complex where metallurgical remains, clay matrixes, and purple-dying remains were documented: Karaberi, Christodoulidou, Kaïafa 1996, p. 534. What was possibly a potter’s workshop, dated to the 3rd c. A.D., was found at 18, K. Palaiologou street: E. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaïdou, ADelt 38 (1983), B2, pp. 281-289.
5 Several furnaces connected with potters’ activities were unearthed in rescue excavations. A Roman pottery furnace was found on Eirinis street, adjacently to the western city wall: A. Varvitsas, ADelt 27 (1972), B1, p. 50. Two Byzantine pottery furnaces were found by the tower of Anaglyfou and the frourio Vardariou: Marki 1982, p. 139, fig. 7 and Theocharidou 1986, p. 99 note 10, where relevant bibliography can be found. Also, Despini 1982, pp. 81-82, fig. 15-16, pl. 14.
6 Roman imperial period furnaces, possibly used for the production of pottery, were found in the plot of the Museum of Byzantine Culture: D. Nalpantis, ADelt 43 (1988), B2, p. 381, and ADelt 44 (1989), B2, p. 346. Remains of a workshop with moulds for clay lamps were found in the excavation of the Theological Department’s of the Aristotle University plot, dated possibly to the 3rd-4th c. A.D.: (Ph. Petsas, ADelt 21 (1966), B2, pp. 334-339, pl. 345-359. In the eastern necropolis, possibly at the Theological Department’s excavation, was also found a clay lamp mould dated to the end of the 4th c.: Thessaloniki, History and Art 1986, p. 22, no. 7.
7 Furnaces, possibly used for the production of pottery during the Roman imperial period, were unearthed at the plot located on the junction of Koloniari, Galanaki and Papathanasiou streets: D. Nalpantis, ADelt 42 (1987), B2, pp. 403-406. A workshop for pottery, possibly for bricks, was unearthed at 93, Monastiriou street. It is quite possibly one of the workshops which developed west of the city walls on the “Κεραμήσιος κάμπος”, toponym known from the 5th miracle in the second book of St Demetrius’ Miracles, dated to the 7th c.: Theocharidou 1986, p. 99; on the excavation, D. Makropoulou, ADelt 43 (1988), B2, pp. 379-380. It has been suggested that more than one brick workshops were active simultaneously during the 4th and 5th c. around Thessaloniki, due to the diversity of brick stamps found in the city’s monuments: Vickers 1973, pp. 285-294; Theocharidou 1986, p. 109. Also, two furnaces of undeterminable use were uncovered in 2004 in the western necropolis, near the Axios complex next to Langada street. I thank the excavator E. Lambrothanasi for rendering this information.
8 Due to the use of open-air fire.
9 For a detailed overview of this, see Antonaras 2016.
10 Antonaras 2009b, pp. 61-77. Antonaras 2010b, pp. 93-105.
11 Van Geesbergen 1999, p. 107.
12 Foy 1991, pp. 58-59. Sternini 1995, pp. 144, 181, 192-194. Gounaris 2000, pp. 323-331, 351, fig. 2-4, 6. Petridis 2002, p. 90. Schauer 2002, p. 42. Brouscari 2002, pp. 135-141.
13 Wiseman 1969, pp. 105-106. Price, Cool 1989, p. 24. Sternini 1995, pp. 146-48, 155, 158, 179-80. Price 1998, pp. 341-342. Lazar 2003, p. 221.
14 Goethert-Polaschek 1977, p. 6, note 44. Follmann-Schulz 1991, p. 35. Sternini 1995, pp. 152, 158, 163.
15 Ph. Petsas, ADelt 22 (1967), B2, pp. 393-396, pl. 299-300.
16 Xyngopoulos 1952, pp. 472-487. S. Pelekanidis, ADelt 17 (1961-1962), B1, pp. 252-253. Ph. Petsas, ADelt 22 (1967), B2, pp. 393-396, pl. 299-300. Bakirtzis 1983, pp. 310-329. Asimakopoulou-Atzaka 1998, pp. 127, 227-228, note 129.
17 Rim diam. 13 cm, pres. H. 3,5 cm, Th. 0,6 cm – coat at 1,5 cm near the base, and 3,5 cm on the rim. A thin layer (0,1 cm.) of greenish glass covers the vessel and the clay coating. Then, another thin grey (0,7 cm.) layer of clay was applied over the glass in order to reinforce the pot. A final layer of glass covers this outer layer of clay. This reinforcement was quite large and went all around the rim, except for a flat part, which was probably turn towards the glory hole in order to facilitate the glassblower’s movements while taking the viscous glass from the kiln. Except coarse hand-made ware deliberately made for this purpose, ordinary household vessels were also often used as melting pots: Price, Cool 1989, pp. 24-25. Sternini 1995, pp. 73-82. Van Geesbergen 1999, pp. 112-113.
18 On metal and wooden tools used within a glass workshop, see Sternini 1995, pp. 83-87.
19 For an intact example of the same shape, see Thessaloniki, History and Art 1986, p. 59, no 4.
20 Petsas 1967, pp. 295 ff, nos. 55-57. Petsas 1968, pp. 156-161. Adam Veleni et al. 1996, p. 501, with exhaustive bibliography.
21 Vitti 1996, pp. 102-103. Valavanidou 2001, pp. 123, 127, 128-129.
22 Ph. Petsas, ADelt 21 (1966), B2, pp. 334-339, pl. 345-359, esp. pp. 338-339, pl. 347 β.
23 Ph. Petsas, ADelt 21 (1966), B2, p. 337.
24 Ph. Petsas, ADelt 21 (1966), B2, pl. 356 α, γ, ε. Analogous motives were found on 4th c. products from Athenian workshops: Perlzweig 1961, p. 115, nos. 715-718, esp. 717, pl. 16, pp. 32-133, nos. 1044-1046, pl. 22, p. 152, nos. 1788-1809, pl. 31, p. 160, no. 2047, pl. 34, pl. 51, rim type no. 22. An unpublished matrix from the same excavation is kept at the Museum of Byzantine Culture of Thessaloniki. It is relevant to the products of the 3rd-4th c. Athenian workshops. See Perlzweig 1961, pp. 136-137, nos. 1181-1182, dated to the second half of the 3rd and the first half of the 4th c. Also, another find from the eastern necropolis, published in Thessaloniki, History and Art 1986, p. 22, no. 7, dated to the end of the 4th c., might also originate from the same excavation.
25 Isings 1957, pp. 139-140, form 111. Papanikola-Bakirtzi 2002, pp. 285, no. 299.
26 Isings 1957, pp. 113-114, form 96α.
27 For complete examples, see Papanikola-Bakirtzi 2002, p. 285, no. 298.
28 Trowbridge 1930, pp. 174, 190, 191, where references to early Christian texts including the term can be found.
29 Uboldi 1995, pp. 115-116, type III. 1. Antonaras 2006a, form 34.
30 Thessaloniki, History and Art 1986, p. 59, no. 4.
31 Isings 1957, pp. 122-123, form 104.
32 Along with the glass shards was found a follis of Anastasios I.
33 Mavromichali 2001, pp. 131-143.
34 Voutiras 1997, p. 81. Sverkos 2001, p. 99.
35 The Roman communities of negotiatores are well attested (Rizakis 1986, Velenis 1996), as well as the Jews (Nigdelis 1994), and other foreigners (Robert 1974), mostly originating from Asia Minor (Sverkos 2001, p. 99 note 23).
36 For a thorough and detailed study of glass vessels from Thessaloniki’s region, see Antonaras 2009b. For a shorter communication on the same subject in English, see Antonaras 2009a. For a comparative study of glass and clay finds, see Antonaras 2010c, pp. 309-319.
37 Antonaras 2009b, pp. 75-83. Antonaras 2010b, pp. 93-105.
38 Antonaras 2008, pp. 23-30.
39 Antonaras 2006, pp. 413-420.
40 Antonaras 2008, pp. 23-30.
41 Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, Reg. No ΜΘ 7224. For its form, see Isings 1957, pp. 122-123, form 103. Antonaras 2009b, pp. 322-324, form 145.
42 Whitehouse 1997, pp. 268-269, no. 457. Similar glass vessel with the same hunting scene where the hunter has been identify as Diana. The vessel and its decoration were thoroughly examined in: Antonaras 2010a, pp. 301-334, where all prior bibliography is cited and commented.
43 Ph. Petsas, ADelt 22 (1967), B2, p. 391, pl. 296 ε and 298, drawing 12 ε. Pallas 1977, p. 75. Feissel 1983, no. 127.
44 Isings 1957, pp. 144-145, form 116. Antonaras 2009b, pp. 131-133, form 16.
45 The vessels and their decoration were thoroughly examined in Antonaras 2010a, pp. 301-334.
46 For a more detailed report on the subject, see Antonaras 2008, pp. 23-30.
47 Diocletian’s edict of 301 (Giacchero 1974). On prices of glass objects, see Barag 1985, pp. 109-116, esp. pp. 113-116, and Stern 1999, p. 466.
48 Verage bottles or jugs, were widely used in Late Antique Thessaloniki and weighted ca 80-150 gr. Therefore, if a pound (327,45 gr) costs 20 or 30 denarii, depending on the quality of the glass, an average bottle vessel would cost around 5 and up to 10 denarii.
49 Makropoulou 1997, pp. 56-69. Makropoulou 2003, pp. 61-62.
50 For color photos of necklaces, see Antonaras 2003, passim.
51 Spaer 2001, pp. 66, 76, nos 56, 57.
52 Spaer 2001, p. 177, nos. 332-38. Markopoulou 1997, p. 64, tab. 2. Spaer 2001, p. 185, no. 409-413. Napantis 2003, p. 63, drawing 32. Spaer 2001, p. 185, nos. 414-422.
53 For examples dated from the 3rd to the 7th c. A.D., see Kypraiou 1997, p. 156, no. 157. Papanikola-Bakirtzi 2002, p. 424, no. 542, p. 558, no. 768.
54 They appear black due to their thickness. Thessalonikki 1986, pp. 123, 132, photo 133. Kypraiou 1997, p. 150, no. 149. Makropoulou 1997, p. 65, tab. 3.
55 Spaer 2001, p. 193. Antonaras 2003, pp. 331-334. Especially on later examples, see Antonaras 2006b, pp. 423-434.
56 Nalpantis 2003, pp. 35, 133 drawing 10, tab. 45.
57 Papanikola-Bakirtzi 2002, p. 425, no. 544.
58 Nalpantis 2003, p. 34, tab. 46. Makropoulou 1997, tab. 4.
59 Copper alloy brooches covered with enameling are in exhibition in the permanent collection of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki, nos. BKο 87/15 and BKο 244/214.
60 Golden earrings are in exhibition in the permanent collection of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki. no. BKο 214/5.
61 For the latest and most up-to-date information about glass windowpanes in the Mediterranean world, see communications in Foy 2005, passim, esp. pp. 15-52.
62 Pelekanidis 1955. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaïdou 1984, pp. 277-96. Antonaras 2007, passim.
63 Ai. Rhomiopoulou, ADelt 31 (1976), B2, pp. 241-242, pl. 194 a, with considerable quantities of window glass found in the debris of a 3rd c. A.D.’s bathhouse possibly from a Roman villa. Similar unpublished material has been unearthed in the Roman villa located under the Galerius’ palace, dated to the 2nd half of the 3rd c. A.D. I express my warmest thanks to the excavator, Mrs. M. Karaberi, for sharing this information with me.
64 For similar finds from Philippi, see Antonaras 2007.
65 James 2006, pp. 29-47, esp. p. 39.
66 Sotiriou 1972, pp. 191-204. Kourkoutidou-Niolaïdou, Tourta 1997, pp. 48-68.
67 Xyngopoulos 1952, pp. 472-487. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaïdou 1989.
68 Cormack 1969, pp. 16-52. Bakirtzis 1986. Kourkoutidou-Niolaïdou, Tourta 1997, pp. 153-174.
69 Xyngopoulos 1929, pp. 142-180. Tsigaridas 1987. Kourkoutidou-Niolaïdou, Tourta 1997, pp. 91-99.
Auteur
-
Anastassios C. Antonaras
Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki
Le texte seul est utilisable sous licence Licence OpenEdition Books. Les autres éléments (illustrations, fichiers annexes importés) sont « Tous droits réservés », sauf mention contraire.
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Boulogne et Thérouanne au temps de César
Approche toponymique de la cité des Morins
Hubert Le Bourdellès
2009
Figures d’empire, fragments de mémoire
Pouvoirs et identités dans le monde romain impérial (IIe s. av. n. è.–VIe s. de. n. è.)
Stéphane Benoist, Anne Daguet-Gagey et Christine Hoët-van Cauwenberghe (dir.)
2011
Boulogne-sur-Mer antique, entre terre et mer
Gesoriacum-Bononia, le port et son arrière-pays
Olivier Blamangin, Angélique Demon et Christine Hoët-van Cauwenberghe (dir.)
2020
Choses vues et entendues par Pausanias
Guide des croyances de la Grèce antique
Jacques Boulogne, Marion Muller-Dufeu et Maude Picouet-de Crémoux (dir.)
2015
« Quartiers » artisanaux en Grèce ancienne
Une perspective méditerranéenne
Arianna Esposito et Giorgos M. Sanidas (dir.)
2013
