1 I thank the British Museum and the Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna (Dott. Laura Minarini) for providing me with photos. The translation was accomplished by Dr. Kostis Karpozelos, whom I warmly thank. Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 31-130.
2 For reforms by Peisistratos see Andrewes 1982; Mossé 1969, p. 49-78. For reforms by Kleisthenes see Ostwald 1988; Ducat 1992, p. 37-51; Whitehead 1986, p. 16-38.
3 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 197-202.
4 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 133-135.
5 Greek Anthology ΧΙ 42.
6 See Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 135; Chatzidimitriou 2005b, p. 132-133.
7 For instance see a red-figure pelike by the Pan Painter (480-470 B. C.) in Wien, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Inv. no. 3727: ARV2 555, 88; CVAWien 2, ΙΙΙ Ι, pl. 76, 1-3 [F. Eichler]; Gschwantler, Oberleitner 1974, p. 73, no. 231, pl. 36; Himmelmann 1980, p. 66-67; Malagardis 1988, p. 114, fig. 5b; Sparkes 1995, p. 152-153, fig. 11.3-4; Reinholdt 1994, p. 169-170, fig. 9a-b.
8 See: a) A black-figure amphora (Type Β) by the Hypobibazon Class (510 B. C.) in Berlin, Antikenmuseum, Inv. no. 4860: Para. 150, 4; Boardman 1980, p. 132, fig. 216; Malagardis 1988, p. 114, note 88, fig. 6; Sparkes 1995, p. 154-156, fig. 11.5, 11.6; Chatzidimitriou 2010, p. 38, figs. 12-13. b) A black-figure amphora (Type Β) by the Hypobibazon Class (510 B. C.), in Richmond, Virginia Museum, Inv. no. 62.1.5: Para. 150, 3; Boardman 1980, p. 132, fig. 215; Kunstwerke der Antike (Basel, 13. Mai 1961), MuMBasel, Auktion 22 (1962), p. 143, pl. 46; Scheibler 1987, p. 66.
9 See: a) A red-figure bell krater by the Pan Painter (see above footnote 7). b) A boeotian kantharus (5th c. B. C.) in Bruxelles, Musées Royaux d’art et d’histoire, Inv. no. Α 1683: CVABruxelles 3, ΙΙΙ G, pl. 5, 2a, b [F. Mayence, V. Verhoogen]; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, 219, no. E6, pl. 2.
10 Koehler 1986, p. 49-67; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 104-106.
11 For example, it has been claimed that a third-century B. C. Rhodian amphora weighed more than thirty-five kilograms when filled with wine. See Koehler 1986, p. 56. According to Senff 1990, p. 454-457 a regular-sized loaded amphora weighted 30 to 40 kilos, while bigger ones could even weight 90 kilos.
12 Lexicon of Suda, s. v. “ἀμφορεαφόρους”: τοὺς μισθίους τοὺς τὰ κεράμια φέροντας, καὶ ἀμφορεαφόρος, ὁ κεράμια μισθοῦ φέρων. Even though lexicographers do not specify if the keramia refer to empty or filled pots, the latter seems more plausible. See Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 105, 218, no. E3.
13 DA IV (1905), s. v. “Πίλος”, p. 479a-481b (P. Paris); R. Kreis von Schwaewen, RE XX 2 (1950), s. v. “Pilos”, p. 1330b-1333a; Ziomecki 1975, p. 72; Pipili 2000, p. 153-179; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 133-134; Chatzidimitriou 2005b, p. 134. For the multiple use of pilos, see Berger 1970, p. 92-97.
14 Pipili 2000, p. 155-162.
15 Pipili 2000, p. 163-178, figs. 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.10.
16 For the agriculture and the country life in classical Attica see Jameson 1992, p. 142-146; Lohmann 1992, p. 29-57. For the animal husbandry see Hodkinson 1988, p. 35-74; Isager, Skydsgaard 1992, p. 83-107.
17 See a) A black-figure boeotian oinochoe (2nd quarter of the 6th c. B. C.), with the potter’s signature of Gamedes (From the Nekropole of Tanagra) in Paris, Museum of Louvre, Inv. no. ΜΝΒ 501: CVALouvre, 17 (France 26), p. 31, pl. 28.1-5 [A. Waiblinger]; Raubitschek 1966, p. 155, no. 1, pl. 44a, c; Himmelmann 1980, p. 55, pl. 2-3; Reinholdt 1994, p. 173-175, fig. 15; Kilinski 1990, p. 19, 42, pl. 15, 3-4. b) A black-figure kyathos signed by Theozotos (550-540 B. C.) in Paris, Museum of Louvre, inv. no. F 69: ABV 349; Malagardis 1988, p. 107, pl. 1a; Eisman 1971, p. 826-827, no. 439; Reinholdt 1994, p. 175, fig. 16a-b; Himmelmann 1980, p. 55, pl. 4-5; Tosto 1999, p. 98-100, Suppl. I11, pl. 153.
18 French 1959, p. 46-57.
19 See above footnote 17.
20 Aristotles, Politics VII 1319a 25-30.
21 For instance see: a) A black-figure kyathos (530 B. C.) with the signature of Nikosthenes, in Bryn Mawr, College, Inv. no. P-88, shows a cowherd, wearing a pointed cap and a mantle, to drive a bull: ABV 223, 62; Eisman 1971, p. 59-62, no. 1, pl. 1-3, fig. 5; Tosto 1999, p. 95-97, p. 226, no. 130, pl. 131. b) The fragments of a black-figure kyathos (530 B. C.) with the signature of Nikosthenes in Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 03.853, show a large bull about to drink from a trough: ABV 223, 61; Eisman 1971, p. 62-64, no. 2; Tosto 1999, p. 95-97, 225-226, no. 129, pl. 131. c) Two fragments of a band cup by the BMN Painter (540 B. C.) in Villa Giulia, Inv. no. 79991, show, on both sides, two bulls attacking each other flanked by two men: Hannestad 1989, vol. 1, p. 9, 72, no. 70.
22 Aristophanes, Nubes 70-72; See Liddell-Scott, s. v. “διφθέρα”. For the origin of the hide and its use as dress see Elsaadani 1988, p. 77-81; Riis 1993, p. 154-160.
23 With the bucolic Idylls of Theocritus (V 147-150) have been associated scenes on a boeotian black-figure cup in Athens, Canellopoulos Museum, Inv. no. 310. On both sides of this cup, a flock of goats and cattle with two herdsmen, are depicted in grotesque style. For the cup see Maffre 1975, p. 496-499, no. 23, fig. 42, a-c and 43, a-b.
24 Hamburg, Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Inv. no. 263: Hornbostel 1977, p. 307, no. 263; Malagardis 1988, p. 107, pl. 1b. The depiction of herdsmen does not differentiate in the mythological cycle. A typical example of this is a red-figure bell-krater by the Pan Painter in Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 10.185. This vase shows Pan pursuing a young herdsman who, besides holding a whip, wears a chiton, a goatskin difthera, stockings and a sheepskin cap on his head. See Beazley 1974, p. 1-2, pl. 2, 4.
25 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund 1938, Inv. no. 38.11.2: Richter 1953, p. 88, pl. 69i; Himmelmann 1980, p. 53-54, pl. 12-13; Reinholdt 1994, p. 175, fig. 18a-c.
26 Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, Inv. no. C. 175: ARV2 412.9; CVA Bologna, Museo Civico di Bologna 1 (I 5), III Ic, pl. 7 [L. Laurinsich].
27 a) A red-figure pelike by the Pig Painter (470 B. C.) in Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, Inv. no. GR 9.1917: CVA Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum 1 (GB 6), III I, pl. 33.2, 34.4 [W. Lamb]; Reinholdt 1994, p. 165, fig. 2; For the homeric episode of Eumaios, see Himmelmann 1980, p. 45-51, 69-70. b) A red-figure chous by the Circle of Meidias or by the Eretria Painter (420 B. C.) in Tübingen, Antikensammlung des Archäologischen Instituts, Inv. no. S./10 1605: CVATübingen 4 (D 52), p. 83, pl. 36 [E. Böhr]; Green 1971, p. 202, fig. 7.8; p. 204, note 19; Reinholdt 1994, p. 166-167, fig. 5a-c.
28 See above footnote 27.
29 Bothmer 1990, p. 139-140, no. 106. For the perizoma and its origin see Kossatz-Deissmann 1982, p. 65-90.
30 London, British Museum, Inv. no. Β 226: See Malagardis 1988, p. 123, fig. 10b; Chatzidimitriou 2008, 241. Ράκτριαι: Pollux, Onomastikon VII 146, X 130: τάς ράβδους αἷς καταράσσουσι τόν καρπόν. For scenes of collecting olives see Malagardis 1988, p. 123-125, fig. 10b-c.
31 One of the earliest illustrations of perizoma occurs on the laconian cup by the Arkesilas Painter (565-560 B. C.): Tiverios 1996, p. 276-277, no. 66; Tiverios 2000, p. 19-26; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 224-225, no. Ε37, pl. 57. On possible Egyptian influences in the perizoma origins see Kossatz-Deissmann 1982, p. 68, note 13. The same clothing is depicted on a black-figure amphora by the Berlin Painter 1686 (550-540 B. C.) in Altenburg, Staatliches Lindenau-Museum, Inv. no. 189: Para. 17, 129; Bielefeld 1957, p. 31, pl. 4, 5; CVAAltenburg 1 (D 17), pl. 15-16 [E. Bielefeld]; Scheibler 1987, p. 63-65, fig. 2; Paul 1992, no. 2.
32 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 1855: Malagardis 1988, p. 123, fig. 10c. For the use of the hide, see above footnote 22.
33 For commentary on this passage see Austin, Vidal-Naquet 1998, p. 379-380, note 74; Garlan 1988, p. 183-184; Lewis 1998-1999, p. 78-90; Lévy 1974, p. 38-46, who refers to slaves’ clothing as described in Aristophanes’ texts.
34 Kunstwerke der Antike (Basel, 5. Oktober 1963), MuMBasel, Auktion 26 (1963), p. 72, no. 135.
35 Athens, Museum of Kerameikos, Inv. no. 6513.5679: Knigge 2005, p. 136, no. 203, pl. 70-71.
36 In the view of Cuomo di Caprio 1984, p. 82, “the nudity of potters working next to furnaces may be due to the sense of relaxation brought on by high temperatures or to the mild climate of Greece and to the fact that pots were fired during the summer, which is the best time for drying them”.
37 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 139-140; Chatzidimitriou 2005b, p. 134.
38 Hesiod, Works and Days 391-392: “γυμνὸν σπείρειν, γυμνὸν δὲ βοωτεῖν, γυμνὸν δ’ ἀμάειν,…”. For instance see: a) A black-figure Little Master Band cup (3rd quarter of the 6th c. B. C.) in Paris, Museum of Louvre, Inv. no. F77: Beazley Archive, no. 164; CVA Musée du Louvre 9 (Fr. 14), III. He, pl. 82.4.6-10; Malagardis 1988, p. 116-117, fig. 7. b) A black-figure cup by the Painter of the Burgon Sianas (560-550 B. C.) in London, British Museum, Inv. no. GR 1906.12-15.1: Μalagardis 1988, p. 116-117, fig. 8a; Brijder 1983, p. 207-208, no. 290, fig. 75-78, pl. 58ab, 91. c) A black-figure cup by the Painter N. (530 B. C.) in Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. F 1806: Malagardis 1988, p. 116-117, fig. 8b; Tosto 1999, p. 135-137, 228, no. 144, pl. 137.
39 Himmelmann 1994, p. 38-39.
40 For instance see: a) A black-figure amphora by the Amasis Painter (last quarter of the 6th century B. C.) in Paris, Museum of Louvre, Inv. no. ΑΜ 1008, on which four naked boys and two naked men are depicted gathering grapes in baskets: CVALouvre 4 (F 5), III He, pl. 29,3 and 30,3 [E. Pottier]; Malagardis 1988, p. 126, fig. 11d. b) A red-figure krater by the Orchard Painter (460 B. C.) in Ferrara, Museo Nazionale, Inv. no. T 254, on which naked youngsters and men are depicted treading grapes in a wine-press: ARV2 p. 524, 26; Para. 383, 26; Malagardis 1988, p. 126, fig. 12b.
41 Sparkes 1976, p. 47-64; Xagorari 1992, p. 97-102.
42 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 99.525: Malagardis 1988, p. 125, fig. 10d.
43 Himmelmann 1971, p. 36-38; Himmelmann 1980, p. 58-63; Himmelmann 1994, p. 7-14, 23-29; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 137-139.
44 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 2294: ARV2 400, 1; Hauser 1932, p. 84; CVABerlin 2 (D 21), pl. 72-73 [A. Greifenhagen]; Mattusch 1980, p. 436, note 13; Ziomecki 1975, p. 148-149, no. 8; Seki 1985, p. 69; Heilmeyer 1993, p. 19-26; Mattusch 1996, p. 182-184; Vidale, Prisco 1997, p. 105-136; Prisco, Vidale 1998, p. 125-131; Neils 2000, p. 75-80.
45 Hamburg, Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Inv. no. 1962.124: Hoffmann 1963, no. 20; Hoffmann 1983, p. 68, fig. 9; Padgett 2000, p. 59-61, fig. 2.5, who asserts that: “In so sharply caricaturing rustic labourers like the donkey-man in Hamburg, vase painters may have been attempting to mitigate in some degree their own marginalization by contributing to that of their unskilled, country cousins, many of whom were certainly slaves”.
46 For the meaning of the baldness see Meyer 1989, p. 74-75; Emery 1999, p. 18-20.
47 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 13.100: Caskey, Beazley 1963, no. 164, pl. 96, 4-5; G. Siebert, LIMC V (1990), s. v. “Hermes”, p. 305, no. 171, pl. 215.
48 Providence, Museum of the Rhode Island School of Design, Inv. no. 25109: ARV2 676, 17; CVAProvidence: Museum of the Rhode Island School of Design 1 (USA 2), pl. 17, 1b [S. Bleecker Luce].
49 See footnotes 45 and 46.
50 Munich, Museum Antiker Kleinkunst, Inv. no. 1717; ABV 362, 36; Beazley 1989, p. 39; Ziomecki 1975, p. 155, no. 33; Philipp 1990, p. 512-513, no. 9; Vidale 1998, p. 124, fig. 4, no. 7; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 35-47, 209, no. K39, pl. 10.
51 See: a) A black-figure amphora (515-510 B. C.) in Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 01.8035: CVABoston 1 (USA 14), pl. 37 [H. Hoffmann]; Ziomecki 1975, p. 150, no. 12Β; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 55-56, 212, no. X2, pl. 22 (fig. 20). b) A black-figure lekythos (510 B. C.) in Würzburg, Martin-von-Wagner-Museum, Inv. no. 98.510: Mythen und Menschen 1997, p. 62-63, no. 17; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 56, 212-213, no. X4, pl. 23. c) A blackfigure oinochoe of the Keyside Class (510-500 B. C.) in London, British Museum, Inv. no. 507: ABV 426, 9; Boardman 1980, fig. 285; Ziomecki 1975, p. 154, no. 29; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 56, 212, no. X3, pl. 22.
52 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 199-200.
53 Karlsruhe, Badisches Landesmuseum, Inv. no. 67/90: CVAKarlsruhe 3 (D 60), p. 53, pl. 24 [C. Weiss]; Ziomecki 1975, p. 152, no. 24; Kaeser 1990, p. 58-59; Philipp 1990, p. 513, no. 10; Vidale 1998, p. 124, figs. 4-5, no. 6; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 35-36, 209, no. K37, pl. 9.
54 Caltagirone, Museo Regionale della Ceramica, Inv. no. 961: Beazley 1989, p. 45; Ziomecki 1975, p. 151, no. 19; Vidale 1998, p. 125, fig. 4, no. 12; Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 36, note 39, p. 211, no. K49, pl. 18.
55 Beazley 1989, p. 16.
56 a) A black-figure cup in Karlsruhe (see above footnote 53 - fig. 21). b) A fragment of the blackfigure vase in the manner of Exekias (540-530 B. C.) in Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Inv. no. 853: Graef, Langlotz 1925, p. 103, no. 853, pl. 56; Ziomecki 1975, p. 147, no. 4; Beazley 1989, p. 39. c) A red-figure cup by the Foundry Painter in Berlin (see above footnote 44). For figures in a frontal squatting pose, see Himmelmann 1971, p. 36-38; Himmelmann 1980, p. 60-63; Himmelmann 1994, p. 7-8.
57 Moreover, similar poses appear in rural representations, as in a scene of honey stealing on a black-figure amphora by Berlin Painter 1686 or by Princeton Painter (540-520 B. C.) in London, British Museum, Inv. no. Β177: Malagardis 1988, p. 130-131, fig. 13c; Böhr 1982, p. 46, pl. 199b.
58 According to Padgett 2000, p. 61, the vase painters, who belonged to the scorned class of artisans, have been attempting to mitigate their own marginalization through the depiction of their unskilled colleagues, many of whom were slaves.
59 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 133.
60 On the wreath’s symbolisms and interpretations see Kefalidou 1996, p. 72-73.
61 Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 164-169. According to one version “craftsmen were responsible not only for the proliferation of scenes of manufacture but for the mythological traditions that inserted legendary craftsmen into Attic genealogy” see Morris 1992, p. 361.
62 See a red-figure oinochoe by the Group Berlin 2415 (470-460 B. C.) in Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. F 2415: Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 215-216, no. C4, pl. 33.
63 On the craftsmen sufficient standard of living see Philipp 1968, p. 99-100; Lauter 1974, p. 10. Moreover see Chatzidimitriou 2005a, p. 201-202.
64 Herodotus, II 167.
65 Translation by A. D. Godley (ed. Loeb).
66 Aristotle, Politics 1318b, 2.10-14.
67 Translation by H. Rackham (ed. Loeb).
68 Xenophon, Oeconomicus V 17.
69 Translation by E. C. Marchant (ed. Loeb).
70 Xenophon, Oeconomicus IV 2.
71 Translation by E. C. Marchant (ed. Loeb).
72 See above footnotes 2, 38. There is only one known plough scene on a late red-figure bell-krater of 430 B. C. by the Painter of the Naples Hephaistos, in Harvard Art Museum/Arthur M. Sackler Museum (Bequest of David M. Robinson), Inv. no. 1960.345. On this vase is depicted Bouzyges, the inventor of the first plough, guiding his invention, which is drawn by a pair of bulls. Τhe olive tree in front of the animals and the spike held by the feminine figure, attest the presence of Athena Polias: CVAThe Robinson Collection, Baltimore 2 (USA 6), pl. 48.2a-b [D. M. Robinson]; Robinson 1931, p. 152-160; Rühfel 2003, p. 85.
73 The reference in poetry of Alcman (2Α Page): οὐκ ἀνὴρ ἄγροικος οὐδὲ σκαιὸς… οὐδὲ ποιμήν…, “No boor... nor a keeper of sheep,…”, shows that the herdsmen were held in low esteem together with other manual workers.
74 See Jameson 1988, p. 87-107.
75 Thucydides I 2.
76 Plato, Critias 114e: Περὶ τὰ ζῶα ἱκανῶς ἥμερα καὶ ἄγρια τρέφουσα. Plutarch (Solon’s Life 23) notices that the country of Attica was better for pasturage than for tillage: βελτίονα νέμειν ἤ γεωργεῖν χώραν ἔχουσι (B. Perrin, ed. Loeb).
77 Xenophon, Oeconomicus V 3.
78 Translation by E. C. Marchant (ed. Loeb).