1. The archaeological context

1The terracotta figurines from Assos under examination are currently kept and exhibited in the archaeology museum at Çanakkale.1 They date from the beginning of the 5^th to the mid-4^th century BC, a period that is defined by a high level of prosperity at the city of Assos. As is well known, Assos is located on the northwestern corner of the ancient Troad, overlooking the island of Lesbos. The city was one of the most opulent cities of Asia Minor during the 5^th and 4^th centuries BC.2 The first archaeological excavations at Assos were undertaken by F.H. Bacon and J.T. Clarke between 1881 and 1884. Ümit Serdaroğlu continued excavating the site from 1981 to 2005. At present, permission to excavate the site of Asssos is held by Nurettin Arslan of Onsekiz Mart University at Çanakkale. The terracotta figurines introduced here were recovered from the western necropolis by Ümit Serdaroğlu between 1988 and 1994.3

2Current archaeological evidence demonstrates that two different necropoleis existed at Assos, namely the east necropolis and the west necropolis. Excavations undertaken at Assos mainly focused on the western necropolis, where pithos burials, urns, sarcophagi, chamber tombs, and monumental graves were recorded in detail. The sarcophagi, manufactured mainly out of local andesite, belong mainly to the 5^th and 4^th centuries BC. The stone sarcophagi alongside the ceremonial paved road that leads to the western city gate of Assos appear to have been richly furnished with terracotta figurines, clay vessels, and metal objects, which make it easier to obtain relative dating for these graves. Most of the terracotta figurines were found in association with skeletons in the sarcophagi, enabling one to explain the function of the terracotta figurines. For example, there are cases in which terracotta figurines were found with skeletons of children, implying that they were the children’s toys during his/her life and they were subsequently deposited in graves as the possessions of the deceased. Examination of the relationship between the skeletons of multiple burials indicates that the deceased persons were occasionally buried simultaneously in these sarcophagi.4

2. The repertoire

3The terracotta figurines recovered from the necropolis of Assos between 1988 and 1994 can be classified in three main categories: divine (gods and goddesses) / mythical, human and animal representations.

2.1. Divine and mythical figurines

4The goddesses Athena, Cybele, and Nike are the three divine beings so far identified among the terracotta figurine repertoire of Assos, while Silenus appears to be our only evidence to show that figurines depicting mythical characters were also present at the site. Several examples of polos-wearing, enthroned Cybele are often depicted with a lion on her lap and a phiale in her hand (e.g., fig. 1). The large number of Cybele figurines from Assos seems to point to her cult being very popular at the city during this period. Two examples of winged Nikai wearing a cloth evoking flight, or the moment of landing, were found at Assos (fig. 2). A single example of a terracotta figurine of the goddess Athena has also been identified among the repertoire (fig. 3). The recovery of only a single terracotta figurine of Athena at Assos is striking, as her cult was very popular at the site. This might have something to do the rising importance of the cult of Cybele at Assos and other sites of this period.

Fig. 1. – Cybele (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 6393).

Fig. 2. – Winged Nikai (Çanakkale Museum inv. nos. 6355-6356).

Fig. 3. – Athena? (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 7452).

2.2. Figurines of humans

5Among the human figurines, the most notable types are those representing standing Persians, aulos players, armed soldiers, reclining musicians holding a lyre, and horsemen wearing a petasos. Human figurines can be subdivided into three groups as male, female, and infants (temple boys, negro boys).

6Males. The terracotta figurines of males can be subdivided into five groups: standing males, reclining males, seated males, horse-riders, and male protomai. Four of the eight available standing male figurines are identical to the degree that they resulted from the same mold. Two of them wear rounded hats (fig. 4). One of them differs from the rest as he is naked and his hands are placed on his waist. One standing male figurine with a typical Persian hat probably depicts a Persian soldier (fig. 5).5 There is also one example of a standing male figurine representing an aulos player. The type of a male reclining on his left side, which recalls a symposium scene, is also common at Assos with several examples (fig. 6). The male figures are propped up on double cushions by their left elbow. These males hold a lyre in their left hand. The right arm is extended along his side, with the hand resting on his knee. Five examples of terracotta horse and rider figurines constitute another sub-group among the male figurines. Three of them were found in a single grave. These riders show only minor differences from each other in terms of detail and all wear the petasos (fig. 7).6

Fig. 4. – Standing ephebs (Çanakkale Museum inv. nos. 7449-7450).

Fig. 5. – Persian soldier (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5565).

Fig. 6. – Banqueters (Çanakkale Museum inv. nos. 7440 and 7442).

Fig. 7. – Rider (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5560).

7Females. Although terracotta figurines of females can be examined in various sub-groups, the most common four types identified so far are standing females, seated females, kourotrophoi and protomai. The standings females are often dressed. We often observe sakkos-like headdresses in such figurines (e.g., fig. 8). One of the standing female figurines is depicted as holding a bowl in her left hand and grasping a piglet with her right (fig. 9). The figurine recovered from Grave 8 in the course of the 1988 excavations is difficult to interpret, as such examples are not very common (fig. 10): one of the two figures covered by a single shawl might have been a female, if not both. The kourotrophos type is also represented by several examples at the site (e.g., fig. 11).7 Fourteen examples of terracotta figurines of seated female were found at Assos in the western necropolis excavation between 1988 and 1994 (e.g., figs. 12-14). Two of these enthroned females wear long clothes and conical hats (figs. 13-14). Although both hands are often placed on the knees in most figurines, there are also cases in which the raised right hand is holding an object. Whether or not they could be identified with Kore or Demeter is difficult to answer. It would appear that the front part of some thrones are finely ornamented with floral motives.

Fig. 8. – Standing women with sakkos (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5569).

Fig. 9. – Standing women with pig (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5580).

Fig. 10. – Couple under the himation (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5582).

Fig. 11. – Kourotrophos (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5572).

Fig. 12. – Seated woman (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5637).

Fig. 13. – Seated woman (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 6316).

Fig. 14. – Seated woman (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 7189).

8Protomai belonging to females constitute the most dominant type among the female figurine repertoire. Twenty examples representing this type have so far been recorded at Assos (e.g., figs. 15-17)8. Protomai or bust-like figurines were made by pressing a thin layer of clay into a single mould. The earliest known examples are especially known to us from Rhodes, although they are said to be manufactured at other centers of production from the early 5^th century BC onwards. Their heights range from 5 cm to 26.5 cm. The holes observed in their tops seem to indicate they were hung with the help of cords. None of the twenty examples resemble each other in terms of facial detail, drapery, or hairstyle. The hands of females in some protomai are occasionally folded as if she was holding her breasts (fig. 15). Traces of paint are visible on same examples (e.g., fig. 16). In one example, the female holds a krotalon in her both hands (fig. 17). The most common feature observed is the presence of a stephane on their heads.

Fig. 15. – Female protome (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5588).

Fig. 16. – Female protome (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 6318).

Fig. 17. – Female protome (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 6630).

9Temple Boys. There are also terracotta figurines representing children or infants, probably slave boys. They may fall into the so-called ‘Temple Boy’ category. They are in generally depicted in crouching positions, although they are very occasionally depicted as standing. This type of terracotta figurine started to be very common following the second quarter of the 5^th century BC.9 They can be sub-divided into two different groups on the basis of their typological features. They can be characterized by naked boys wearing a small pointed hat, or pilos, represented by two examples at Assos. One of them is depicted in a crouching position, while the other one is standing (fig. 18). The latter example seems to be unique to Assos. A single example of a terracotta negro boy depicted in crouching position was also found at Assos during the surface study in the cemetery area in 1993 (fig. 19). The style of short curly hair and thick lips clearly confirms that this figurine depicts a negro boy. A nearly identical terracotta figurine is known to us from Rhodes.10

Fig. 18. – “Temple boys”, crouching and standing (Çanakkale Museum inv. nos. 5570 and 5583).

Fig. 19. – Crouching negro (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 7447).

10Grotesques. Two examples of grotesque figurines stylistically different from each other have also been identified among the terracotta figurines recovered from the western necropolis at Assos. One of them is formed of two figures placed on a pedestal. These two figures are depicted in a position of having conversation. The other example at first glance recalls the Egyptian god Bes, who is depicted in crouching position and wears a kalathos.

11Dolls. Terracotta figurines with articulated limbs, often described as dolls or children’s toys, are represented by three examples at Assos. Two of them are nearly identical and could be viewed as casts from the same mould. The articulated arms and legs are handmade. This type probably represents a girl wearing a short chiton and a hat (fig. 20). The two examples were found in Grave 55, in which skeletons of a woman and her child were found. The third figurine is different as it represents a naked female. The articulated head, arms, and legs are also handmade in this example, while the remaining body is mold-made. This example was found in association with the skeleton of an infant in Grave 23. This can be used in favor of the argument that terracotta figurines with articulated limbs also served as children’s toys or dolls.

Fig. 20. – Dolls (Çanakkale Museum inv. nos. 6310 and 6311).

2.3. Animal figurines

12Animal figurines are also common in the graves of Assos. These terracotta – birds, monkeys, boars, tortoises and bulls – are generally found in the burials of infants.

13Birds. Terracotta figurines of doves are commonly found in infant graves at Assos. Nearly ten examples of this type of animal figurine have been recorded in the course of excavations. These handmade dove figurines differ from each other only in anatomical details, such as tails and necks. Their recovery in infant graves also points to their use as children’s toys. The figurine type composed of two doves placed side by side on a pedestal is represented by two similar examples. There are also figurines characterized by three doves placed on a pedestal (fig. 21). The lack of comparable figurines at other sites seems to indicate that this was a product of local workshops at Assos.

Fig. 21. – Group of three birds on a base (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 5587).

14Monkey. Two terracotta figurines depicting a monkey are present at Assos. They are hand-made and lack anatomical details. No comparable examples of this type have been documented at other sites, implying a local production. Their context shows that these figurines might have been children’s toys.11

15Tortoise. A single example of a terracotta figurine representing a tortoise has also been found at Assos (fig. 22). It was found in Grave 8, which contained the skeleton of an infant, implying that this could have also been a children’s toy. Robinson views such figurines as children’s toys and dates those examples found at Olynthus to the beginning of the 5^th century BC.12 Higgins also dates to this century and points to Rhodes as the source of such terracotta tortoise figurines.13

Fig. 22. – Tortoise (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 7185).

16Boar. There are three terracotta figurines representing boars at Assos. One of them was recovered from Grave 8, in which the skeleton of child was found. The fact that most such figurines emerged from children’s graves led Robinson to consider them as children’s toys.14 Higgins views this type of figurine as dating to the early 5^th century BC, being Rhodian imports.15

17Bull. A single example of a recumbent bull also requires our attention (fig. 23). It is difficult to date because it is a surface find. A comparable figurine kept at the Leiden Museum, dating to the earlier stages of the Hellenistic period, is very similar to the one from Assos.16 The Leiden figurine is said to come from Smyrna. Another comparable figurine is known to us from the Louvre Museum. This example reportedly originates in Myrina.17 These two examples show that this type of bull figurine of Hellenistic date may have derived from Ionian workshops.

Fig. 23. – Bull (Çanakkale Museum inv. no. 7458).

3. Discussion of evidence

18It would appear that most of the terracotta figurines found at Assos date to the 5^th century BC. Evaluation of the terracotta figurines from Assos in terms of style demonstrate that most of these figurines actually represent imports from the famous workshops of the island Rhodes, which was an important artistic centre during this period. It is safe to assume that Rhodian imports had a strong impact on the development of local terracotta production tradition at Assos. There are close stylistic similarities between the terracotta figurines recovered from the necropoleis of Rhodes and Assos. This can best be seen in the protomai.18 Higgins argues that protomai were produced at the workshops of Rhodes.19 In a similar way, the temple boy figurines unearthed at Assos have identical parallels at Rhodes. They can even be viewed as products of same mold.20 Higgins also argues that temple boy figurines were actual products of Rhodian workshops.21 It can be hypothesized on the basis of style that some of the types representing sitting infants,22 birds, and a tortoise may be actual imports from Rhodes. Among the terracotta figurines from Assos, it is possible to identify imports from Boeotia and Attica as well. For example bird figurines are characteristic of the graves of Boeotia,23 while protomai and dolls are very common at centres excavated in the region of Attica.

19It should also be mentioned that a group of locally produced terracotta figurines has been identified at Assos. This is because some of the types identified at Assos have no parallel at other sites. Several examples displayed at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Louvre Museum, and the Istanbul Archaeological Museum may represent types peculiar to Assos workshops. For example, dressed females wearing conical hats, dressed females seating on a throne, and dressed females with folded forearms holding a fruit or a bunch of flowers are types that could be viewed as characteristic of the local workshops of Assos. Likewise, standing males or horsemen wearing a petasos can also be viewed as typical products of Assos workshops during this period. Reclining males holding a lyre is another figurine type peculiar to Assos. Nevertheless, there is limited evidence to prove the presence of workshops specializing in the production of terracotta figurines. The lack of suitable clay sources at Assos and in its immediate vicinity seems to indicate that the workshops might have been located within the territory belonging to the city. The discovery of terracotta figurines sharing a similar stylistic and iconographic tradition with those of Assos at the nearby ancient city of Antandrus24 seems to indicate that the workshops might have existed close to these two important cities. The necropolis excavated on the island of Tenedos, just offshore from the coastline of Troy, is another location where terracotta figurines turned up in great numbers. Those Tenedian figurines also show close links with those of Assos and Antandrus, strengthening the idea of local terracotta workshops sharing a similar artistic tradition. Thus, the tradition of terracotta figurines attested at Assos, Antandrus, and Tenedos points to a local production in the northeast Aegean, although the impact of Rhodian tradition is also well attested there.

20Those terracotta figurines recovered from the western necropolis of Assos between 1988 and 1994 date to a period from the beginning of the 5^th century BC to the middle of the 4^th century. The relative dating of terracotta figurines recovered from the western necropolis of Assos is mainly obtained by comparisons with stylistically similar examples found at other sites. There are also cases in which the artifacts accompanying the terracotta figurines helped us to obtain a better dating for the contexts in which they were found. For example, terracotta figurines recovered from Grave 9 excavated in 1990 can safely be dated to the 4^th century on the basis of a coin of this date found in it.25 Grave 2 excavated in 1989 is dated to around 500-490 BC on the basis of the recovery of seated female figurines in it. The deposition of terracotta figurines in graves appears to have been a common burial custom at Assos during this period. Evaluation of the terracotta figurine assemblage from Assos also helps us to identify types such as Cybele, Nike, Kourotrophos, Silenus, males, females, animals (birds, boars, bulls, monkeys, and tortoises), temple boys, and grotesques. Excluding Cybele and Athena, the lack of figurines representing gods and goddesses among the repertoire from Assos is quite striking. Various types of Cybele figurines, however, exist at Assos, which was apparently due to the role of her cult at the city. Visual examination of the clay of terracotta figurines support the idea that certain types identified at Assos might well have been manufactured locally. This is because the clay of certain types that are considered to be local products have a different character from those that are thought to be imports from other workshops. In particular, the clay of the types of a reclining male holding a lyre, horseman, and seated dressed female have mica inclusions, a characteristic of the clay of the region.

21In summary, it can be stated that the terracotta figurines recovered during the archaeological excavations undertaken at Assos between 1988 and 1994 show a wide variety of types, both locally produced and imported. They inform us of the coroplastic art of this important city during the Classical period, about which we have hitherto little knowledge. It seems that Rhodes was one of the most important centres from where the products reached Assos. Evaluation of available evidence also shows that a local workshop supplying the city might have also existed somewhere very close to Assos. It is hoped that ongoing archaeological excavation at Assos will provide us with more information on the terracotta figurines and their contexts.