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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral I. Introduction II. The Principle of Sustainable Development in EU Law II. The Operationalisation of the Principle of Sustainable Development on the Example of the Digital Transformation of the EU IV. E-Government in the EU And Ecological Sustainability V. Conclusions Notes de bas de page Auteur

    The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework

    Ce livre est recensé par

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    Table des matières

    Chapter III

    E-government and Environmental Protection Towards Greater Sustainability

    Inga Kawka

    p. 55-73

    Résumé

    Sustainable development is a rising principle of the EU legal system. It emphasises values such as the social and economic welfare of the EU and its Member States, and the quality of the environment that must be respected when formulating and implementing all EU policies. This should also be the case with the current EU priority, which is the digitalisation of Europe, including the digitalisation of the EU and the administration of its Member States. This article analyses how the principle of sustainable development, based on three pillars – balanced economic growth, a social market economy, and a high level of environmental protection – is taken into account by EU institutions in the context of a digital transformation. Next, the paper focuses on the relationship between the digitalisation of public administration and environmental sustainability. Digital tools used by the administration, such as artificial intelligence, 5G, cloud and edge computing, and the Internet of Things, can be the driving force of the ecological transformation of Europe. Nevertheless, the threats to the environment that may result from ICT development should also not be underestimated.

    Texte intégral I. Introduction II. The Principle of Sustainable Development in EU Law A. The Meaning of the Concept i. Balanced Economic Growth ii. Social Market Economy iii. A High Level of Environmental Protection iv. Balanced Consideration of Social, Economic and Environmental Objectives II. The Operationalisation of the Principle of Sustainable Development on the Example of the Digital Transformation of the EU A. Introduction B. Digital Transformation and Sustainability i. Ecological sustainability ii. Economic Sustainability iii. Social Sustainability IV. E-Government in the EU And Ecological Sustainability A. Introduction B. Digitalisation of the Administration as a Tool to Enhance Ecological Sustainability i. Digitalisation of Administration and the Capacity of the Member States’ Environmental Protection Administration ii. A European Data Space for the European Green Deal iii. Digital Public Services Enhancing Environmental Protection. The Example of Smart Cities V. Conclusions Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Texte intégral

    I. Introduction

    1The principle of sustainable development is gradually becoming the foundation of European integration. It is a legal concept characterised by special axiological importance, consisting of the protection of values important to EU legal order, such as the social and economic welfare of the EU and its Member States, and the quality of the environment. The fact that legal principles express the values forming the axiology of the entire legal system gives these principles specific structural and functional importance. The first – structural – importance is associated with assigning legal principles a hierarchical superiority, which results from their placement in legal acts of the highest rank (in the case of EU law, in the Treaties). The second – functional – importance concerns the integration of principles in law-making processes, and subsequently the processes of interpretation and application of law.1 It follows that all EU policies, including governmental digitalisation, must be designed and implemented following this principle. The objective of this article is therefore to answer whether the digitalisation of public administration in the EU can lead to the achievement of sustainable development goals, and in particular one of them – the ecological transformation of the EU.

    II. The Principle of Sustainable Development in EU Law

    A. The Meaning of the Concept

    2The term ‘sustainable development’ appears frequently in EU primary law.2 According to Article 3(3) TEU, the Union is working for the sustainable development of Europe. This Treaty provision also points to the foundations of this development. These are balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy, aiming at full employment and social progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment.

    i. Balanced Economic Growth

    3It follows from Article 3(3) of the TEU that the first pillar of sustainable development is ‘balanced economic growth’. In development economics3 this term refers to the simultaneous, coordinated, and proportional expansion of several sectors.4 This definition also assumes the existence of unbalanced growth and, in such a situation, allows for public intervention as a response to the lack of private initiative. The sustainable development of Europe also assumes price stability. This means the need to guard the EU economy against an inflation rate – the rate at which the overall prices for goods and services change over time – that is either too low or too high.5

    ii. Social Market Economy

    4The second pillar of European sustainable development is a highly competitive social market economy.6 The term ‘social market economy’ originated in Germany after the Second World War (Soziale Marktwirtschaft).7 Implementation of the concept of a social market economy enables the reconciliation of the principles of economic liberalism and the free market with the realisation of social goals. According to Bruno de Witte,8 the meaning of this concept in EU law is not entirely clear. Depending on whether emphasis is placed on the adjective ‘market’ or ‘social’, it may form the basis for both the arguments of the supporters of the liberal approach to the economy, as well as for the representatives of concepts emphasising the need for extensive public intervention in the market, in order to pursue public interests, including social ones. Certainly, however, the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty strengthened the position of non-market values in EU law. This was due to the recognition of the binding force of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, which mentions social rights under the title of ‘Solidarity’.9 Therefore, the introduction of the concept of a ‘social market economy’ by the Lisbon Treaty in Article 3(3) TUE is certainly aimed at emphasising that the economic benefits realised within the Union should not overshadow the social benefits,10 and the Union is attempting to fight the social deficit,11 aiming at full employment and social progress. The importance of issues related to social development was also noted by the CJEU in its judgments.12 It is stated in Laval and Viking13 that ‘Since the Community has thus not only an economic but also a social purpose, the rights under the provisions of the EC Treaty on the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital must be balanced against the objectives pursued by social policy […]’.

    iii. A High Level of Environmental Protection

    5The third pillar of sustainable development in the EU is the ‘high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment’. This objective is considered by the CJEU to be an essential objective of the European Union,14 and is to be achieved owing to the development of the European Union’s environmental policy (title XX of the TFEU, Arts 191–19315). Article 191(2) TFEU establishes the principles of this policy: ‘Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection, taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union. It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should, as a priority, be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay.’ Additionally, Article 37 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also provides, in relation to environmental policy: ‘A high level of environmental protection and the improvement of the quality of the environment must be integrated into the policies of the Union and ensured following the principle of sustainable development’.

    iv. Balanced Consideration of Social, Economic and Environmental Objectives

    6The concept of sustainable development in Article 3(3) TEU integrates separate policies and activities of the EU,16 emphasising the need for the balanced consideration of social, economic and environmental objectives. The EU’s approach to sustainable development differs from the concept introduced in 1987 in the Report of the World Commission for the Environment and Development – the so-called Bruntland Report.17 This Report adopted the definition of sustainability and lent it the widespread recognition it enjoys today.18 It focuses on the contradiction between the aims of welfare for all and environmental conservation, and defines sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. In contrast, Article 3(3) TEU does not imply a contradiction, but a reconciliation of economic development (more jobs, a competitive and innovative economy, development of entrepreneurship) with the protection of the natural environment, and the guarantee of social development for the benefit of present and future generations.19

    II. The Operationalisation of the Principle of Sustainable Development on the Example of the Digital Transformation of the EU

    A. Introduction

    7An excellent example of the operationalisation of the principle of sustainable development in the EU is the reconciliation of the digital transformation of Europe with sustainability objectives. Like any other EU policy, the policy in the field of digitalisation of the EU society, economy and administration cannot be contradictory to the assumptions of sustainable development, and should even lead to its reliance.20 The digital transformation of Europe should therefore be carried out following the principle of sustainable development, legal acts issued by the EU in this sphere must be consistent with it, and their interpretation and application should lead to the implementation of this principle.

    B. Digital Transformation and Sustainability

    8The link between digital transformation and ecological transformation is emphasised in the EU’s soft law acts. In its 2022 Strategic Foresight Report, entitled Twinning the Green and digital transitions in the new geopolitical context,21 the European Commission concluded that digital technologies can play a key role in achieving climate neutrality, reducing pollution and restoring biodiversity. In the Berlin Declaration,22 the Council stressed the need to ensure synergies between the digitalisation of Europe and the sustainability of the Union. According to this document, the digital transformation in Europe should, inter alia, contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goals, and provide a common data space for the European Green Deal to extend and deepen EU cooperation, data reuse and exchange, good practices, and solutions of digital governance. In the Green Deal itself, we can find the statement that ‘digital technologies are a critical enabler for attaining the sustainability goals of the Green Deal in many different sectors’.23 In particular, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) such as artificial intelligence, the 5G network, cloud computing, the architecture of distributed information resources (edge computing), and the Internet of Things, can serve to accelerate and maximise the impact of policies on climate change and environmental protection.

    i. Ecological sustainability

    9EU institutions also focus on the environmental impact of ICT. Under the ‘Sustainability’ principle expressed in the European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade (Declaration),24 digital products and services should be designed, produced, used, disposed of, and recycled in a manner minimising their negative environmental and social impact, in order to avoid significant harm to the environment,25 as well as to promote a circular economy. In addition, according to the Declaration, ‘everyone should have access to accurate, easy-to-understand information on the environmental impact and energy consumption of digital products and services, allowing them to make responsible choices’. Thus, in the Declaration, European institutions commit to: ‘supporting the development and use of sustainable digital technologies that have minimal environmental and social impact, and developing and deploying digital solutions with a positive impact on the environment and climate’. An example of EU legal solutions related to problems with non-renewable and non-recyclable components of electronic devices are EU rules on the treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment.26 And the latest initiative is the proposal on common rules promoting the repair of goods.27 According to this proposal, the manufacturer will have an obligation to repair goods for 5–10 years after their purchase, depending on the type of product. This initiative aims to reduce waste, especially electrical and electronic, as well as to ensure that consumers have easier and cheaper options to repair technically repairable products (such as vacuum cleaners, tablets and smartphones).

    10Additionally, in order to contribute to sustainable production and consumption, according to ‘A new Circular Economy Action Plan’,28 ‘digital technologies can track the journeys of products, components and materials, and make the resulting data securely accessible. The European data space for smart circular applications will provide the architecture and governance system to drive applications and services, such as product passports, resource mapping and consumer information.’

    11An interesting example of a new technological solution to empower consumers for the green transition is the ‘Digital Product Passport’.29 It is a key regulatory element enhancing the traceability of products and their components (their origin and composition, including substances of concern, their reuse, repair, dismantling and recycling possibilities, and end-of-life handling, as well as their environmental footprint). Digital product passports will store and share information about a product’s life cycle, and could help consumers make better-informed choices, as well as encourage producers to increase the sustainability of their products.

    ii. Economic Sustainability

    12According to ‘A New Industrial Strategy for Europe’ (Strategy)30 and its updated version,31 a strong Single Market and a globally competitive Europe require the twin digital and green transition of the European economy. In the vision of the European Commission, the development of ICT is not only an opportunity for economic development, but is closely related to the implementation of the Green Deal. In line with the New Industrial Strategy, ‘digital technologies are changing the face of the industry and the way we do business. They create new business models, allow the industry to be more productive, provide workers with new skills, and support the decarbonisation of our economy. The digital sector will also contribute to the European Green Deal, both as a source of clean technology solutions and by reducing its carbon footprint.’ Thus, the EU is implementing not only weak economic sustainability, assuming only balanced economic growth, which means the ability of an economy to support a defined level of economic production indefinitely, but adopting the concept of strong sustainability. According to it, economic sustainability means that economic systems support sustainable social and environmental outcomes32. Therefore, the digital transformation of the EU economy is not only supposed to make it more competitive, but also more sustainable. For example, ICT solutions such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, big data, and the Internet of Things, have a significant role to play in sustainable finance.33 EU initiatives in this regard concern, for example, the inclusion of sustainability-related information in the European Single Access Point (ESAP),34 and the Open Finance Framework.35

    13Another example are data-driven innovations that should, according to the Commission,36 ‘bring enormous benefits for citizens, for example through improved personalised medicine, new mobility and through its contribution to the European Green Deal’.

    14To include sustainability criteria in investments, a Taxonomy regulation37 was adopted, which also takes into account the environmental impact of ICT. For example, the EU Taxonomy Climate Delegated Act38 establishes the technical screening criteria for data centres and digital solutions contributing substantially to EU Taxonomy objectives, and should be expanded to include more activities for developing sustainable digital solutions and using sustainable crypto-assets.

    15The principle of sustainability is also integrated into EU funding. Instruments such as the Recovery and Resilience Facility, Horizon Europe, and cohesion policy funds support, inter alia, technological investments, and promote innovation. Three types of investments can be co-financed from the multi-annual EU budget: 1) in digital technologies that contribute to achieving environmental objectives, 2) in environmentally-friendly ICT digital technologies, 3) in digital technologies that contribute to achieving economic or social objectives, which have no negative impact on the environment. This results both from strategic planning and programming documents, as well as from the obligation to adopt appropriate criteria for selecting projects for co-financing.

    iii. Social Sustainability

    16The EU institutions focus not only on technological change in Europe, but also on the protection of fundamental rights in the digital environment, e-democracy, digital inclusion through universal internet access, strengthening of digital skills, the dissemination of digital public services, and a fair and safe online environment. In the face of the digitalisation of administration, there is also an unprecedented opportunity to involve citizens more widely in democratic processes of co-creating regulations at the local and central levels.

    17The orientation of the EU’s digital transformation towards citizens is shown in the EU Declaration of Digital Rights and Principles in the Digital Decade, proclaimed by the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission on 23 January 2023. The Declaration contains the principles governing Europe’s digital transformation, which are to guarantee the use of new technologies and the resulting digital facilities for the good of man. According to the Declaration, the goal of digitising the EU is, among others: to support solidarity and social inclusion, to ensure easy access to online digital public services, to support the participation of citizens in the digital public space, to increase the security, protection and empowerment of EU citizens in the digital environment, and to promote sustainable development. In this perspective, the Declaration, which has the potential to become a global point of reference for many social and ethical issues emerging from the digital transformation, gives an important place to solidarity and inclusion, which involve the possibility of offering digital services to everyone, so that nobody is left behind. Therefore, this calls for actions to include elderly people, people with disabilities, people who are marginalised, vulnerable, or otherwise deprived of rights and privileges.39

    18The primary purpose of the Declaration is to ensure a human-centric approach to the digital transformation of Europe, as well as to ensure that fundamental rights are respected in the same way in the digital environment as in the real world. Examples of binding European legislation implementing these assumptions, which aim to ensure compliance with fundamental rights in the digital environment, and create a safer online space are: the Digital Services Act (DSA),40 the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),41 and the directive on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market.42 In addition, the answer to existential risks related to AI43 is the proposal of the European Commission regulation,44 which is based on a human-centric approach and the protection of fundamental rights.

    IV. E-Government in the EU And Ecological Sustainability

    A. Introduction

    19One of the directions of digital transformation in Europe is the digitalisation of public services. In the Digital Compass communication,45 the Commission set out concrete objectives for the digitalisation of the public administrations of Member States. According to them, by 2030: ‘100 per cent of the most important public services are to be available online for EU citizens and businesses, 100 per cent of EU citizens are to have access to medical records (in electronic form), 80 per cent of citizens are to use digital identity’. The importance of e-government is also emphasised in the European Declaration of Digital Rights and Principles in the Digital Decade. According to the Declaration, ‘everyone should have access to key online public services across the Union’.

    20The digitalisation of administration is a tool primarily intended to lead to modernisation and increase effectiveness and efficiency. Thus, it is obvious that digital tools in administration will facilitate the functioning of EU citizens and entrepreneurs, will simplify the settlement of administrative matters, and will subsequently increase the competitiveness of the EU economy. However, the answer to the question about the relationship between the digitalisation of the government and the protection of the environment and improving its quality is not so evident.

    B. Digitalisation of the Administration as a Tool to Enhance Ecological Sustainability

    i. Digitalisation of Administration and the Capacity of the Member States’ Environmental Protection Administration

    21The degree of digitalisation of the administration affects the administrative capacity of Member States, including those in the field of environmental protection. The development of e-government translates, above all, into the transparency of the administration’s operations, which prevents the use of public authorities for private benefits, including both small and large-scale corruption, and enhances government accountability.46 For example in public procurement, the principle of transparency promotes equal treatment of economic operators, fair competition, and the opening up of national markets.47 Moreover, digitalisation increases the administrative capacity of the public sector by reinforcing the efficiency of administration and the quality of regulation. The idea, thanks to digital solutions, is to make the delivery of public services more effective, speedy, accessible and simple.48 This also applies to ecological environment governance. For example, digitalisation facilitates contacts with the environmental protection administration, e.g. online public consultations and e-delivery. Digitalisation is certainly a factor that may support environmental impact assessment49 through software tools and databases, improve citizens’ participation, and strengthen public participation in decision-making in the field of environmental protection. As emphasised by the EU legislator in Directive 2003/35:50 ‘effective public participation in the taking of decisions enables the public to express, and the decision-maker to take account of, opinions and concerns which may be relevant to those decisions, thereby increasing the accountability and transparency of the decision-making process and contributing to public awareness of environmental issues and support for the decisions taken’.

    22The digitalisation of administration also facilitates awareness and the ability of citizens to participate in ecological environment governance. An interesting example is enabling citizens to report a threat or damage to the environment online to the competent authorities.51 The service in the mObywatel application operating in Poland – ‘Environmental Violations’ – allows a citizen to inform about an event that may be harmful to the environment. Notifications can be sent using a mobile phone in several categories: 1) abandonment/illegal depositing/storage/burial of waste, 2) illegal processing/recovery/disposal/burial of waste, 3) illegal transport of waste, 4) illegal import of waste from abroad, 4) contamination of water, air or land surface with substances, 5) other notification. The notification with the photo and the indicated location is forwarded to the appropriate unit of the Chief Inspectorate for Environmental Protection. The provision of information may remain anonymous.52 There is a similar function on the Inspectorate website.53 Between 2021 and 2023, over 7.6 thousand notifications (3,240 – mObywatel) were submitted via the ‘Report an intervention’ and the mObywatel application. The notifications allowed for the liquidation of approx. 350 smaller and larger illegal landfills.54

    23Another digital tool to facilitate contact with the environmental administration is digital identity. Solutions in this area have been adopted in regulation on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market.55 The latest Commission proposals go even further. Everyone will have the option of having a European digital identity wallet that is accepted in relations with administration and business in all Member States.56

    ii. A European Data Space for the European Green Deal

    24Information technology plays a central role in solving environmental problems. It is used to better understand issues, influence policies, evaluate risks, shape policy agendas, and make well-informed decisions.57 The use of ICT significantly strengthens the role of environmental data, as exemplified by the use of environmental electronic databases. An example is Copernicus. This is the European Union’s Earth observation programme. It offers information services drawn from an Earth Observation satellite and in-situ (non-space) data. The European Commission manages the Programme. It is implemented in partnership, inter alia, with: the Member States, the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), EU Agencies, and Mercator Océan.58 Vast amounts of global data from satellites and ground-based, airborne, and seaborne measurement systems provide information to help service providers, public authorities, and other international organisations improve European citizens’ quality of life and beyond. The information services provided are free and openly accessible to users.

    25Another example of data management in the environmental sector is the activity of the European Environment Agency (EEA). The agency is one of the key providers of reliable and comparable environmental information, using, inter alia, the data made available by the Member States in the context of INSPIRE. The INSPIRE directive59 aims to create a European Union spatial data infrastructure for EU environmental policies and policies or activities that may have an impact on the environment. This European Spatial Data Infrastructure enables the sharing of environmental spatial information among public sector organisations, facilitates public access to spatial information across Europe, and assists in policy-making across boundaries.

    26The EU’s further ambition is to create the European Green Deal Data Space under the Digital Europe Programme, as an element of a common European Data Space. The common European Green Deal data space will interconnect currently fragmented data from various ecosystems, both for/from the public and private sectors. These data, combined with digital infrastructure (e.g. supercomputers, cloud, ultra-fast networks) and artificial intelligence solutions, facilitate evidence-based decisions and expand the capacity to understand and tackle environmental challenges. Efficient data management can be a tool for public administration to predict and manage climate-related, natural disasters. The Commission’s vision is to use the major potential of data in support of the Green Deal priority actions on climate change, circular economy, zero-pollution, biodiversity, deforestation and compliance assurance. The ‘GreenData4All’ and ‘Destination Earth’ (digital twin of the Earth) initiatives will cover concrete actions.60

    iii. Digital Public Services Enhancing Environmental Protection. The Example of Smart Cities

    27As a response to rapid urbanisation, many cities around the world, e.g. Seoul, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai, Singapore, Amsterdam and Barcelona, have started to implement smart city projects and international organisations such as the European Union and the International Telecommunication Union have begun promoting the smart city concept. A smart city is a place where traditional networks and services are streamlined using ICT for the benefit of its residents and business. The different elements of a smart city include, for example, intelligent urban transport networks, modernised water supply and waste disposal systems, and more efficient ways of lighting and heating buildings, smart energy grids, healthcare and education.61 The definition of a smart city thus, has two elements: firstly, it focuses on ICT; secondly, it points to the purposes of ICT application, which is primarily concerned with sustainable urban development, and enhanced quality of life for citizens, as well as better, interactive, flexible city administration.62 The smart city is defined even more broadly by Leonidas G. Anthopoulos.63 He lists eight components of the smart city ecosystem: 1) smart utility infrastructure (water supply, energy networks, roads, buildings); 2) smart transport (transport networks with built-in real-time monitoring and traffic congestion control systems); 3) smart environment (protection of the environment and resources, thanks to waste disposal systems, air pollution monitoring, and recycling, among others); 4) smart services (education, health, tourism, etc.; 5) smart governance (electronification of public services, participation and involvement of citizens in city affairs; 6) smart people (measures to enhance human creativity and support the development of innovation); 7) smart living (innovations to improve the quality of life in urban space); 8) smart economy (technologies and innovations to support economic development and employment in cities). These components are interconnected and require massive data collection and ICT embedded in traditional urban infrastructure.

    28An example of the impact of ICT on smart cities is the use of solutions related to the Internet of Things.64 It is defined as a network connecting devices characterised by autonomous (not requiring human involvement) operation in terms of data acquisition, sharing and processing, or interacting with the environment under the influence of these data.65 The report of the Polish Ministry of Digital Affairs on the Internet of Things, describing the scope of use of IoT as part of the implementation of the smart cities concept, mentions, for example, intelligent transport. Constant communication between devices within intelligent transport systems, collecting information from sensors, cameras, and devices installed in public transport vehicles, meteorological stations, speed cameras, etc., in combination with advanced data analysis systems, is supposed to enable: ‘increased capacity of transport infrastructure, improved safety, reduced travel time, reduced fuel and energy consumption, improved efficiency of public transport, and effective emergency management’66 (Ministry of Digital Affairs 2019). The Internet of Things is also applicable to smart energy grids, smart buildings, smart waste management, smart parking, smart health care, and smart air pollution monitoring.67

    V. Conclusions

    29In light of the most recent policy and legal developments, digitalisation has become a key instrument of the Union’s choice towards more sustainability. Digital technologies, such as artificial intelligence, 5G, cloud and edge computing, and the Internet of Things used by public administration, can accelerate the impact of public policies in dealing with climate change and protecting the environment. Thus, digital technologies are a critical tool for attaining the sustainability goals of the Green Deal. An example of this is the digitalisation of sustainable public services in cities, or the use of information in environmental protection administration. At the same time, ICT’s environmental impact is not irrelevant. The manufacturing and use of ICT devices can become a major source of emissions. Also, many ICT devices contain non-renewable and non-recyclable components that can cause significant environmental damage. In addition, blockchain, Machine Learning in Artificial Intelligence, or metaverses, require high levels of electricity consumption for their operations and cooling. Therefore, there is also a need for more transparency on ICT environmental sustainability. Digital infrastructure and technologies, also those used by the administration, need to be more green, energy-efficient and resource-efficient.

    Notes de bas de page

    1 L. Leszczyński, ‘Zasady prawa – założenia podstawowe’ (2016) XXV(1) Studia Iuridica Lublinensia 13.

    2 We can find this in the preamble to the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU – Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union [2012] OJ C 326/47), the preamble to the Treaty on European Union (TEU – Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2016], OJ C202/13), Article 3 TEU, which expresses the objectives of the European Union, Article 21 TEU, which defines the principles of the Union’s external action, Article 11 TFEU on the EU’s support for environmental protection, Article 191 TFEU relating to the Union’s environmental policy, Article 37 (Environmental protection) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights – Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2012] OJ C 326/39.

    3 ‘Balanced growth’ has a different meaning in macroeconomics. According to this meaning, balanced growth occurs when output and capital stock grow at the same rate.

    4 See generally: J. Temple, ‘Balanced Growth’ in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) 657–60; M. Singer, ‘Balanced Economic Growth: Concepts and Policies’ (1967) 16(2) Social and Economic Studies 156–68: www.jstor.org/stable/27856261; R. Nurkse, Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries (New York, Oxford University Press, 1961) 163; R. M. Solow, ‘La théorie de la croissance et son évolution’ (1988) 3(2) Revue française d’économie 3–27; Ł. Piętak, ‘Zrównoważony wzrost gospodarczy w teoriach i modelach wzrostu i rozwoju gospodarczego’ (2017) 43(2) Gospodarka w Praktyce i Teorii 51–77.

    5 L. Svensson, ‘Price Stability as a Target for Monetary Policy: Defining and Maintaining Price Stability’ in D. Bundesbank (ed), The Monetary Transmission Process (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) 60–111; see also: ECB website: www.ecb.europa.eu/mopo/intro/benefits/html/index.pl.html.

    6 J. Mulder, ‘(Re) Conceptualising a Social Market Economy for the EU Internal Market’ (2019) 15(2) Utrecht Law Review 16–31.

    7 The concept of the social market economy comes from the representatives of ordoliberalism – W. Eucken and A. Muller-Armack – who first used the term ‘Soziale Marktwirtschaft’, see: Ch. Joerges, F. Rödl, ‘“Social Market Economy” as Europe’s Social Model?’ (2004) 8 EUI Working Paper Law hdl.handle.net/1814/2823.

    8 B. de Witte, ‘Non-market Values in Internal Market Legislation’ in N. N. Shuibhne (ed), Regulation the Internal Market (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006) 81, 82.

    9 The Charter of Fundamental Rights in Chapter IV, entitled ‘Solidarity’, recognises the rights of workers to information and consultation within the company, to collective bargaining and action, to access to job placement services, to protection in the event of unjustified dismissal, to fair and just working conditions; it introduces a ban on child labour and protection of young people at work; it protects family and working life, establishes the right to social security and social assistance, health protection, access to services of general economic interest, environmental protection, and consumer protection.

    10 Ch. Joerges, ‘What is Left of the European Economic Constitution?’ (2004) 13 EUI Working Paper Law: ssrn.com/abstract=635402.

    11 L. Azoulai, ‘The Court of Justice and the Social Market Economy: The Emergence of an Ideal and the Conditions for its Realization’ (2008) No 45 Common Market Law Review 1336; V. Šmejkal and S. Šaroch, ‘EU as a Highly Competitive Social Market Economy – Goal, Options, and Reality’ (2014) | 14(4) Review of Economic Perspectives 393–410.

    12 Case C-341/05, Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet, ECLI:EU:C:2007:809; Case C-438/05, International Transport Workers’ Federation and Finnish Seamen’s Union v Viking Line ABP i OÜ Viking Line Eesti ECLI:EU:C:2007:772.

    13 Ibid., case Laval, para 105 and case Viking, para 79.

    14 Case 240/83, ADBHU, EU:C:1985:59, para 13; Case C‑28/09, Commission v Austria, ECLI:EU:C:2011:854, para 120.

    15 See especially: A. Sikora, Constitutionalisation of environmental protection in EU law (Zutphen, Europa Law Publishing, 2020) 75–78.

    16 M. Kenig-Witkowska, ‘The Concept of Sustainable Development in the European Union Policy and Law’ (2017) 1(1) Journal of Comparative Urban Law and Policy 67.

    17 World Commission for the Environment and Development, Our Common Future, UN General Assembly, Doc. A/42/427, Sect. 4: sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf.

    18 T. Kuhlman and J. Farrington, ‘What is Sustainability?’ (2010) 2 Sustainability 3436–48, doi.org/10.3390/su2113436.

    19 S. R. W. van Hees, ‘Sustainable Development in the EU: Redefining and Operationalizing the Concept’ (2014) 10(2) Utrecht Law Review 72.

    20 P. De Pasquale, Sostenibilità e trasformazione digitale: paradigmi a confronto nella disciplina dell’Unione europea (2022) 1 Il diritto dell’Unione europea 67–92.

    21 Commission, ‘2022 Strategic Foresight Report Twinning the green and digital transitions in the new geopolitical context’, (Communication) COM/2022/289 final.

    22 Berlin Declaration on Digital Society and Value-Based Digital Government at the ministerial meeting during the German Presidency of the Council of the European Union (2020) 14, 15.

    23 Commission, ‘The European Green Deal’ (Communication) COM/2019/640 final.

    24 European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade, OJ [2003] C 23/1, Chapter VI: Sustainability.

    25 For a definition of ‘significant harm to the environment’, see: Art. 17 of the Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088, OJ [2020] L 198/13.

    26 Consolidated text: Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/2018-07-04.

    27 Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on common rules promoting the repair of goods and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394, Directives (EU) 2019/771 and (EU) 2020/1828 COM/2023/155 final.

    28 Commission, ‘A new Circular Economy Action Plan For a cleaner and more competitive Europe’ (Communication) COM/2020/98 final.

    29 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for setting ecodesign requirements for sustainable products and repealing Directive 2009/125/EC, COM/2022/142 final.

    30 Commission, ‘A New Industrial Strategy for Europe’ (Communication) COM/2020/102 final.

    31 Commission, ‘Updating the 2020 New Industrial Strategy: Building a stronger Single Market for Europe’s recovery’ (Communication) COM(2021) 350 final.

    32 Commission, ‘Strategy for Financing the Transition to a Sustainable Economy’ (Communication) COM/2021/390 final.

    33 E. K. Jeronen, ‘Economic sustainability, Summary’ in S. Idowu, R. Schmidpeter, N. Capaldi, L. Zu, M. Del Baldo and R. Abreu (eds), Encyclopedia of Sustainable Management (Cham, Springer, 2020).

    34 The ESAP will be an EU-wide platform, and is intended to provide an easy centralised point of access to information on financial services, capital markets and sustainability that entities and competent authorities are required to make public; Proposal For A Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European single access point providing centralised access to publicly available information of relevance to financial services, capital markets and sustainability, COM/2021/723 final.

    35 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a framework for Financial Data Access and amending Regulations (EU) No 1093/2010, (EU) No 1094/2010, (EU) No 1095/2010 and (EU) 2022/2554, COM(2023) 360 final.

    36 Commission, ‘A European strategy for data’, (Communication) COM(2020) 66 final.

    37 Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on sustainability‐related disclosures in the financial services sector, OJ [2019] L 317/1 amended by regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088, OJ [2020] L 198/13.

    38 Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2022/1214 of 9 March 2022 amending Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2139, as regards economic activities in certain energy sectors and Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2178, as regards specific public disclosures for those economic activities, OJ [2022] L 188/1.

    39 P. De Pasquale, ‘Verso una Carta dei diritti digitali (fondamentali) dell’Unione europea?’ (2022) 1 Il diritto dell’Unione europea 163–72.

    40 Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market For Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act) OJ [2022] L 277/1.

    41 Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons concerning the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) OJ [2016] L 119/1.

    42 Directive (EU) 2019/790 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market and amending Directives 96/9/EC and 2001/29/EC, OJ [2019] L 130/92.

    43 A. Turchin and D. Denkenberger, ‘Classification of Global Catastrophic Risks Connected with Artificial Intelligence’ (2020) 35(1) AI and Society 147–63.

    44 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain union legislative acts, COM/2021/206 final.

    45 Commission, ‘2030 Digital Compass: the European way for the Digital Decade’, (Communication) COM/2021/118 final.

    46 A. Halachmi and D. Greiling, ‘Transparency, E-Government, and Accountability: Some Issues and Considerations’ (2013) 36(4) Public Performance & Management Review 562–84.

    47 A. Sołtysińska, ‘E-procurement and the Principle of Transparency in Public Procurement in the European Union’ in S. Dudzik, I. Kawka and R. Śliwa (eds), E-administracja. Skuteczna, odpowiedzialna i otwarta administracja publiczna w Unii Europejskiej (Kraków, Księgarnia Akademicka, 2022) 147.

    48 P. Garg, ‘E-Governance – A Way to Good Governance’ (2008) 69(1) The Indian Journal of Political Science 43–48.

    49 Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment (codification) OJ [2012] L 2/1 amended by Directive 2014/52/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 amending Directive 2011/92/EU on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment OJ [2014] L 124/1; C. De Wolf, M. Cordella, N. Dodd, B. Byers, S. Donatello, ‘Whole life cycle environmental impact assessment of buildings: Developing software tool and database support for the EU framework Level(s)’ (2023) 188 Resources, Conservation and Recycling 1–16.

    50 Directive 2003/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 provides for public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment and amendments concerning public participation and access to justice Council Directives 85/337/EEC and 96/61/EC, OJ [2003] L 156/17.

    51 According to Art. 12 of the Directive 2004/35/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability concerning the prevention and remedying of environmental damage, OJ [2004] L 143/56 ‘Natural or legal persons: (a) affected or likely to be affected by environmental damage or (b) having a sufficient interest in environmental decision-making relating to the damage or (c) alleging the impairment of a right, where administrative procedural law of a Member State requires this as a precondition, shall be entitled to submit to the competent authority any observations relating to instances of environmental damage or an imminent threat of such damage of which they are aware and shall be entitled to request the competent authority to take action under this Directive; B. Iwańska, Koncepcja ‘skargi zbiorowej’ w prawie ochrony środowiska, (Warszawa, Wolters Kluwer, 2013) 301.

    52 www.gov.pl/web/mobywatel-w-aplikacji/naruszenia-srodowiskowe.

    53 portal.gios.gov.pl/formularze/share/6087ac37e1744901b6c94f233bd123a8.

    54 A. Żuławnik, ‘“Donos” w aplikacji mObywatel. GIOŚ podał statystyki’: https://biznes.interia.pl/gospodarka/news-donos-w-aplikacji-mobywatel-gios-podal-statystyki,nId,6775473.

    55 Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market and repealing Directive 1999/93/EC, OJ [2014] L 257/73.

    56 Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending regulation (EU) No 910/2014 as regards establishing a framework for a European Digital Identity, COM(2021) 281 final.

    57 P. J. Mol, ‘Environmental governance in the Information Age: the emergence of informational governance’ (2006) 24 Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 497–514.

    58 https://www.copernicus.eu/en.

    59 Directive 2007/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2007 establishing an Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE), OJ [2007] L 108/1.

    60 Commission, ‘A European strategy for data’, (Communication) COM(2020) 66 final.

    61 S. P. Mohanty, U. Choppali and E. Kougianos, ‘Everything you wanted to know about smart cities: The Internet of things is the backbone’ (2016) 5(3) IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine 60–70.

    62 M. Oh and J. F. Larson, Digital development in Korea. Lessons for a Sustainable World (London, Routledge, 2020); K. Hamaguchi, Y. Ma, M. Takada, T. Nishijima, T. Shimura, ‘Telecommunication Systems in Smart Cities’ (2012) 61(3) Hitachi Review 152–58.

    63 L. G. Anthopoulos, Understanding Smart Cities – A tool for Smart Government or an Industrial Trick? (Cham, Springer, 2017) 5–42.

    64 Y. Zou, B. Jolly, R. Li and M. Wang, ‘The Internet of Things: Nervous System of the Smart City’ in S McClellan, J Jimenez and G Koutitas (eds), Smart Cities Applications, Technologies, Standards, and Driving Factors (Cham, Springer, 2018) 75–96.

    65 E. M. Kwiatkowska, ‘Rozwój Internetu Rzeczy – szanse i zagrożenia’ (2014) 8(3) Kwartalnik Antymonopolowy i Regulacyjny 60–70; R. Mącik, ‘Internet rzeczy – postrzegane przez młodych konsumentów korzyści i zagrożenia – wyniki badań wstępnych’ (2016) 17(4) Przedsiębiorczość i Zarządzanie 11–27.

    66 Ministry of Digital Affairs, ‘IoT w polskiej gospodarce. Raport Grupy Roboczej do spraw Internetu Rzeczy przy Ministerstwie Cyfryzacji’ (Warszawa, 2019): www.gov.pl/attachment/82ad18f8-2ac1-4433-a1ea-f887b522e46b.

    67 N. Reddy Gade, Ni. Reddy Gade and G. J. Ugander Reddy, ‘Internet of Things (IOT) for Smart Cities – The Future Technology Revolution’ (2016) 16(1) Global Journal of Computer Science and Technology 29–33.

    Auteur

    • Inga Kawka

      Dr hab., Professor, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland

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    1 L. Leszczyński, ‘Zasady prawa – założenia podstawowe’ (2016) XXV(1) Studia Iuridica Lublinensia 13.

    2 We can find this in the preamble to the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU – Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union [2012] OJ C 326/47), the preamble to the Treaty on European Union (TEU – Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2016], OJ C202/13), Article 3 TEU, which expresses the objectives of the European Union, Article 21 TEU, which defines the principles of the Union’s external action, Article 11 TFEU on the EU’s support for environmental protection, Article 191 TFEU relating to the Union’s environmental policy, Article 37 (Environmental protection) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights – Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2012] OJ C 326/39.

    3 ‘Balanced growth’ has a different meaning in macroeconomics. According to this meaning, balanced growth occurs when output and capital stock grow at the same rate.

    4 See generally: J. Temple, ‘Balanced Growth’ in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) 657–60; M. Singer, ‘Balanced Economic Growth: Concepts and Policies’ (1967) 16(2) Social and Economic Studies 156–68: www.jstor.org/stable/27856261; R. Nurkse, Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries (New York, Oxford University Press, 1961) 163; R. M. Solow, ‘La théorie de la croissance et son évolution’ (1988) 3(2) Revue française d’économie 3–27; Ł. Piętak, ‘Zrównoważony wzrost gospodarczy w teoriach i modelach wzrostu i rozwoju gospodarczego’ (2017) 43(2) Gospodarka w Praktyce i Teorii 51–77.

    5 L. Svensson, ‘Price Stability as a Target for Monetary Policy: Defining and Maintaining Price Stability’ in D. Bundesbank (ed), The Monetary Transmission Process (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) 60–111; see also: ECB website: www.ecb.europa.eu/mopo/intro/benefits/html/index.pl.html.

    6 J. Mulder, ‘(Re) Conceptualising a Social Market Economy for the EU Internal Market’ (2019) 15(2) Utrecht Law Review 16–31.

    7 The concept of the social market economy comes from the representatives of ordoliberalism – W. Eucken and A. Muller-Armack – who first used the term ‘Soziale Marktwirtschaft’, see: Ch. Joerges, F. Rödl, ‘“Social Market Economy” as Europe’s Social Model?’ (2004) 8 EUI Working Paper Law hdl.handle.net/1814/2823.

    8 B. de Witte, ‘Non-market Values in Internal Market Legislation’ in N. N. Shuibhne (ed), Regulation the Internal Market (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006) 81, 82.

    9 The Charter of Fundamental Rights in Chapter IV, entitled ‘Solidarity’, recognises the rights of workers to information and consultation within the company, to collective bargaining and action, to access to job placement services, to protection in the event of unjustified dismissal, to fair and just working conditions; it introduces a ban on child labour and protection of young people at work; it protects family and working life, establishes the right to social security and social assistance, health protection, access to services of general economic interest, environmental protection, and consumer protection.

    10 Ch. Joerges, ‘What is Left of the European Economic Constitution?’ (2004) 13 EUI Working Paper Law: ssrn.com/abstract=635402.

    11 L. Azoulai, ‘The Court of Justice and the Social Market Economy: The Emergence of an Ideal and the Conditions for its Realization’ (2008) No 45 Common Market Law Review 1336; V. Šmejkal and S. Šaroch, ‘EU as a Highly Competitive Social Market Economy – Goal, Options, and Reality’ (2014) | 14(4) Review of Economic Perspectives 393–410.

    12 Case C-341/05, Laval un Partneri Ltd v Svenska Byggnadsarbetareförbundet, ECLI:EU:C:2007:809; Case C-438/05, International Transport Workers’ Federation and Finnish Seamen’s Union v Viking Line ABP i OÜ Viking Line Eesti ECLI:EU:C:2007:772.

    13 Ibid., case Laval, para 105 and case Viking, para 79.

    14 Case 240/83, ADBHU, EU:C:1985:59, para 13; Case C‑28/09, Commission v Austria, ECLI:EU:C:2011:854, para 120.

    15 See especially: A. Sikora, Constitutionalisation of environmental protection in EU law (Zutphen, Europa Law Publishing, 2020) 75–78.

    16 M. Kenig-Witkowska, ‘The Concept of Sustainable Development in the European Union Policy and Law’ (2017) 1(1) Journal of Comparative Urban Law and Policy 67.

    17 World Commission for the Environment and Development, Our Common Future, UN General Assembly, Doc. A/42/427, Sect. 4: sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf.

    18 T. Kuhlman and J. Farrington, ‘What is Sustainability?’ (2010) 2 Sustainability 3436–48, doi.org/10.3390/su2113436.

    19 S. R. W. van Hees, ‘Sustainable Development in the EU: Redefining and Operationalizing the Concept’ (2014) 10(2) Utrecht Law Review 72.

    20 P. De Pasquale, Sostenibilità e trasformazione digitale: paradigmi a confronto nella disciplina dell’Unione europea (2022) 1 Il diritto dell’Unione europea 67–92.

    21 Commission, ‘2022 Strategic Foresight Report Twinning the green and digital transitions in the new geopolitical context’, (Communication) COM/2022/289 final.

    22 Berlin Declaration on Digital Society and Value-Based Digital Government at the ministerial meeting during the German Presidency of the Council of the European Union (2020) 14, 15.

    23 Commission, ‘The European Green Deal’ (Communication) COM/2019/640 final.

    24 European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade, OJ [2003] C 23/1, Chapter VI: Sustainability.

    25 For a definition of ‘significant harm to the environment’, see: Art. 17 of the Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088, OJ [2020] L 198/13.

    26 Consolidated text: Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/19/2018-07-04.

    27 Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on common rules promoting the repair of goods and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394, Directives (EU) 2019/771 and (EU) 2020/1828 COM/2023/155 final.

    28 Commission, ‘A new Circular Economy Action Plan For a cleaner and more competitive Europe’ (Communication) COM/2020/98 final.

    29 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for setting ecodesign requirements for sustainable products and repealing Directive 2009/125/EC, COM/2022/142 final.

    30 Commission, ‘A New Industrial Strategy for Europe’ (Communication) COM/2020/102 final.

    31 Commission, ‘Updating the 2020 New Industrial Strategy: Building a stronger Single Market for Europe’s recovery’ (Communication) COM(2021) 350 final.

    32 Commission, ‘Strategy for Financing the Transition to a Sustainable Economy’ (Communication) COM/2021/390 final.

    33 E. K. Jeronen, ‘Economic sustainability, Summary’ in S. Idowu, R. Schmidpeter, N. Capaldi, L. Zu, M. Del Baldo and R. Abreu (eds), Encyclopedia of Sustainable Management (Cham, Springer, 2020).

    34 The ESAP will be an EU-wide platform, and is intended to provide an easy centralised point of access to information on financial services, capital markets and sustainability that entities and competent authorities are required to make public; Proposal For A Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a European single access point providing centralised access to publicly available information of relevance to financial services, capital markets and sustainability, COM/2021/723 final.

    35 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a framework for Financial Data Access and amending Regulations (EU) No 1093/2010, (EU) No 1094/2010, (EU) No 1095/2010 and (EU) 2022/2554, COM(2023) 360 final.

    36 Commission, ‘A European strategy for data’, (Communication) COM(2020) 66 final.

    37 Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on sustainability‐related disclosures in the financial services sector, OJ [2019] L 317/1 amended by regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088, OJ [2020] L 198/13.

    38 Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2022/1214 of 9 March 2022 amending Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2139, as regards economic activities in certain energy sectors and Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/2178, as regards specific public disclosures for those economic activities, OJ [2022] L 188/1.

    39 P. De Pasquale, ‘Verso una Carta dei diritti digitali (fondamentali) dell’Unione europea?’ (2022) 1 Il diritto dell’Unione europea 163–72.

    40 Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market For Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act) OJ [2022] L 277/1.

    41 Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons concerning the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) OJ [2016] L 119/1.

    42 Directive (EU) 2019/790 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market and amending Directives 96/9/EC and 2001/29/EC, OJ [2019] L 130/92.

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    The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework

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    Kawka, I. (2024). E-government and Environmental Protection Towards Greater Sustainability. In A. Sikora & I. Kawka (éds.), The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework. Bruxelles: Presses universitaires Saint-Louis Bruxelles. https://doi.org/10.4000/12kez
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    Sikora, A., & Kawka, I. (éds.). (2024). The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework. Bruxelles: Presses universitaires Saint-Louis Bruxelles. https://doi.org/10.4000/12kfd
    Sikora, Alicja, et Inga Kawka, éd. The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework. Bruxelles: Presses universitaires Saint-Louis Bruxelles, 2024. doi:10.4000/12kfd.
    Sikora, Alicja, et Inga Kawka, éditeurs. The European Green Deal and the Impact of Climate Change on the EU Regulatory Framework. Presses universitaires Saint-Louis Bruxelles, 2024, https://doi.org/10.4000/12kfd.
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