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    Plan

    Plan détaillé Texte intégral A little man in a big world The evil outside the Garden The Garden as a crossroads between good and evil Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne

    Ce livre est recensé par

    Précédent Suivant
    Table des matières

    When the Garden of Good Turns out to Be an Evil Place: William Goyen’s “Tenant in the Garden”

    Gérald Préher

    p. 209-220

    Texte intégral A little man in a big world The evil outside the Garden The Garden as a crossroads between good and evil Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Texte intégral

    “I was beginning to write down these feelings of homesickness, of loss of place, reveries of my beginnings, of a countryside that now seemed like the Garden itself, like a country of Paradise. A world I had lost became the world of my dreams and a world to go out and search for when I could.”
    William Goyen, “While You Were Away1”

    1In the entry of the Encyclopedia of Southern Cultures devoted to “Garden Myth”, Lewis P. Simpson traces the origins of the idea that America is “the garden of the world”; after explaining the importance of Eden and Arcadia in popular imagination, he notes that the South’s pastoral ideal was corrupted because of its “peculiar institution” and the region was thus dispossessed of its garden. Fiction became a means to recover purity and writers found in this flawed region a number of literary possibilities: “Making this drama their subject, they made the alienated literary imagination, the dispossessed garden, yield the rich flowering known as the Southern Renaissance2.” Andrew Nelson Lytle concurs with Simpson when he notes that “the South is the only section of this country that knows the meaning of defeat, that is, the nature of the world. Everywhere else there has been nothing but a rising triumph, a pyramiding of success upon success. It is a perilous condition3”. Defeat gives way to clarity of vision for those who agree to see their mistakes and try to move on. Of course, not all Southerners were inclined to acknowledge that their civilization was faulty, but those who did made it their strength. Flannery O’Connor was fond of Walker Percy’s statement that there were many good writers in the South “because they lost the war4”. William Goyen, a Texan writer, sums up the whole issue of the dispossessed garden when he says that people have to “[learn] again to look at things that are, where they are5”, namely they should focus on what is there instead of searching for what no longer is.

    2Goyen’s fiction generally focuses on an individual’s relationship to place—to what appears to be a lost paradise. His characters need to make sense of their loss before they can proceed to live their life to the full. The Miltonian intertext is palpable as the first sentence of The House of Breath (1950) makes clear: the narrator “[walks] upon a park that [seems] like the very pasture of Hell6”. He goes on to describe “couples whispering in the shadows, all in some plot to warm the world tonight” while he “[feels] alone and lost in the world with no home to go to7”. Goyen takes up ideas he developed in the early story “The Evil”, which describes the transition between childhood and adulthood as a boy understands that the discovery of sexuality changes an individual forever: “The night he first lay his body naked and felt it lost in another body, he knew his accusers were right [to say he was evil]. And when, after the body’s agony, he lay floating on a dead featherlike sea, full of quietness and numbness, he knew his child was dead and his terror was gone8.” The third person narrator underlines the metamorphosis that has taken place by symbolically killing the child and giving birth to the adult. The stroll in the garden at the beginning of the story (“The child walked the yard slowly in big manstrides and often pondered heavily a tree or a flower9”) thus constitutes the child’s wandering from one biological time to another, from what he has so far felt was good to what he believes to be evil. The garden becomes the locus of a “moment of being” where the self is able to reflect upon life and decide which path to choose.

    3In The House of Breath, the narrator does not seem ready to make a move that is likely to alter his perception of life, he experiences “agony in the garden10” and is at a loss until the voices of home resound in him, calling him back to the place where he belongs. The image of the garden of good and evil is conjured up later when the narrator reminisces: “There, in the garden, I, like an Eve, found him leaf-shadowed (and, like Eve, leaf would forever after make me stop to remember)11.” The narrator is watching Christy, one of the Ganchion sons, and, putting himself in the position of Eve, he suggests that he is aware of his own sinful desires while emphasizing the homo-erotic dimension of the episode—the leaf suggests that Adam-Christy has already fallen and that somehow, the narrator has also gone too far. Nevertheless, as Simone Vauthier has shown, it is impossible to locate the narrator’s identity, he is “[left] out, unattached to the family tree12”, an image which reinforces the fact that going through the garden might enable the self to define its identity. The narrator’s desire is strong but remains unfulfilled, he is defined by his words but he remains trapped in the garden of his memory, unable to decide between good and evil.

    4To a certain extent, the narrator of Goyen’s debut novel is a “tenant in the garden” and the later story from which this expression is borrowed can be seen as an illustration of the consequences of such an entrapment. Although “Tenant in the Garden” is not William Goyen’s most popular story13, reading it through the prism of the myth of the garden offers stimulating ground to explore the writer’s relationship to place. In the story, Mr. Stevens who has recently moved from the Southwest to the Napa Valley in Northern California decides to search for another place to rent after his landlady’s brother decides to settle there. Soon after his departure, the narrator observes: “A few days later, Mr. Stevens found in the garden of a large old-fashioned house exactly where he wanted to live14.” The formulation of the sentence makes the garden an essential location to define the character’s choice of a place to stay. The garden becomes the central stage in the story for it is there that most of the action takes place. The playhouse that has been erected in the garden also plays a key part: built for the proprietress’s daughter to play in when she was a young girl, it had been more or less abandoned since she left the town but, with Mr. Stevens’ arrival, it becomes a center of attention for the neighbors and ends up being turned into the social heart of the neighborhood15. The aim of this paper is to point out the importance of the garden as a place that helps shape the community. Mr. Stevens’ intrusion and subsequent expulsion from it make it possible to define the garden as a good place that reveals the evil side of those outside it, their lack of consideration for others. The geographical place where the action is located also calls to mind the myth of the West as presented in Frederick Jackson Turner’s famous essay on the frontier: it is “the meeting point between savagery and civilization16”. The garden eventually appears as a crossroads between good and evil whose meaning can only become clear once the playhouse has been assigned a function.

    A little man in a big world

    5“Tenant in the Garden” reads like a fairy tale in which everything appears in miniature: “To this little town in Napa Valley came this little old printer named Mr. Stevens, and he was about fifty at the time17.” This little man owns a little car and very few things. Everything about him seems reduced in size and quantity and he does not appear to belong in the wider world. After leaving the Southwest after his sister’s death, he finds a job as printshop teacher in a junior high school but he is rejected by the students who “[call] him names, [dislike] him because he [is] piddling and funny-looking18”. There is obviously a huge gap between his life in the Southwest, “working at his little hand press and in his small shop19” and his experience in California. Indeed, he is initially depicted as an adventurer and a wanderer (“he felt the need of a trip and a change20”), but he soon becomes an outcast (“‘he will have to leave […] at once […] we are here to evict him’21”): he does not stay very long in the first place he rents and it is only in a garden nearby that he temporarily finds peace. The story is thus a fine illustration of Goyen’s work which revolves around “the search for a place where one can be oneself—not a material position but a spiritual one-ness with one’s surroundings22”. Since the garden appears to him as a peaceful hamlet in the corrupt city, choosing to relocate there highlights Mr. Stevens’ desire to find original purity.

    6For a while, he rents a playhouse located “in the garden of a large old-fashioned house” where he feels comfortable in spite of the limited space: “he felt safe and hidden and warm in his peaceful dwelling23”. He finds out that the playhouse was built for the proprietress’s daughter who used to play there when she was little; it is therefore only a transitory place between childhood and adulthood. The lady explains that “when [her daughter] [shot] up into a tall, thin girl, she had to stoop over to get inside. Then she met [a] logger from Oregon and could not see anything but him. They eloped, without even telling me, to the Valley of the Moon. I have not written her one letter since24”. The situation, though tragic for the mother, is described in almost comic terms—the mother seems inclined to tone things down not to acknowledge her loss. The playhouse is personified; the curtains “belong to the playhouse25”, a “play set of painted china cups and saucers, a painted coffeepot on a tin tray” are said to “go with the house26”, but Mrs. Algood is not aware of all the efforts she makes to keep her daughter’s presence alive. When a “little” neighbor pays her a visit and they sit on the porch of the playhouse, Mrs. Algood realizes that the lady is “about the size of [her daughter] before she shot up so tall27”, another indication that her world revolves around her daughter. Mrs. Algood “[feels] the need for company28” and Mr. Stevens’ coming fills the void left by her daughter: “You are welcome to live here as long as you like29”, she tells him. She even envisages a solution to keep him forever: “If worst came to worst, you could put a printing press in my basement, next to the washing machine. We could work side by side30.” There seems to be an aura of secrecy surrounding Mr. Stevens’ presence: even though Mrs. Algood is ready to offer him a place to work, it is in a basement, a place which, by definition, is located underneath the surface. Mr. Stevens would thus become Mrs. Algood’s secret—he would be there without anyone knowing about it and they would be partners.

    7The association of these two characters remains of a grotesque nature and the narrator emphasizes their physical difference quite early. When he first describes Mrs. Algood, he presents her as “the big lady who owned the playhouse but lived in the big house […], a large Swedish woman with big feet and a big head with abundant hair31”; Mr. Stevens, on the contrary, is depicted as a “little bald-headed man32”. Although everything seems to oppose them, the two characters get along well33. When trouble with the city officials appears, Mrs. Algood tries to defend her tenant but to no avail, he is eventually evicted, leaving her with vivid memories: “his warm, real presence was still there34”, “he was by nature the quietest, sweetest-natured little person she had ever known35”. Mr. Stevens is rejected because people find him ugly and because his physical features do not make it possible to assign him a specific gender. The children “whispered that he looked and acted like an old, bald-headed woman and his wizened face was like a mummy’s36”. But Mr. Stevens also appears as a Christ figure, as a martyr whose “nature was stoic and long-suffering” and though he is ostracized, he “would not quit37”, echoing the description of the Messiah in Isaiah 52: 14-15 and 53: 11-12. He is the source of repulsion for some and fascination for others—a logical consequence of his androgynous status since, as Sarah Gleeson-White has shown, “the androgynous figure is a fantasy (it seems both male and female)38”. From the outside, Mr. Stevens is obviously a strange creature, who has built a kind of protective shell around himself so he would not get hurt39. His selection of Mrs. Algood’s playhouse mirrors this behavior since it is “[s]heltered by a large eucalyptus tree40”—only in nature can Mr. Stevens find his true nature.

    8The various incidents at school lead the narrator to reflect upon Mr. Stevens’ past life: “He had been used to living quietly in some small space or other, in his small workshop with the hand press or in his little bed-sitting room with the tiny wood stove on two animal-like legs41…” The narrator insists on the size of Mr. Stevens’ surroundings and makes the whole description sound poetic and the locations quite Edenic, thanks to the use of alliteration: in the places he previously inhabited, Mr. Stevens did not feel inappropriate; he was comfortable in a small world where his own size was in keeping with that of the places. The change that he has to experience in Napa Valley is so important that the narrator cannot help but wonder: “Why had he taken this job that had cruelly brought him out into the open world where he seemed to cause strife and antagonism just by being the way he was42”? The absence of commas in this question makes it clear that for the narrator everything is intimately connected and that Mr. Stevens is symbolically trapped in the middle of a chain reaction. Likewise when the playhouse is under siege—Mr. Stevens’ whole class invades the garden after he has deserted them to retreat home—Mr. Stevens is publicly ridiculed, insulted in front of the neighbors as the stories about him are displayed by the students.

    The evil outside the Garden

    9The situation presented in this story can be understood as a reflection upon History and more specifically on the Frontier in its relation to the South. The various compromises that were signed to prevent the expansion of slavery made it clear at the time that the North did not want the peculiar institution to spread into the new territories. Just like Mr. Stevens in Goyen’s story, the South was looked down on by its neighbors and somewhat ridiculed. The metaphor of the West as a garden is significantly presented in H. D. Thoreau’s essay “Walking” where he compares it to “the Island of Atlantis, and the islands and gardens of the Hesperides, a sort of terrestrial paradise43”. However, Thoreau does not only see the shining side of things, when he mentions Adam, he also implies that the blissful garden might be sheltering unexpected evil. The Great West that he describes is a country of the mind, a dream that is likely to turn into a nightmare. In “Tenant in the Garden”, Mr. Stevens’ journey is thus telling: he moves further west (from the Southwest towards San Francisco until he arrives in Northern California) in order to find an ideal place to live, but he ends up meeting savages, who are, as opposed to him, fully fledged adults.

    10The West, as Frederick J. Turner has shown in his essay on “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, constitutes a crossroads between the Old World and the New World:

    “The frontier is the line of most rapid and effective Americanization. The wilderness masters the colonist. It finds him a European in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and thought. […] at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails. Little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not the old Europe, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more than the first phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark. The fact is that here is a new product that is American44.”

    11Mr. Stevens does not fit into that pattern; he seems to have arrived too late in a West that has already been taken over by men with strong beliefs about manhood. The garden of his dreams is, unfortunately for him, located in an evil district where his differences stand out. When he reflects upon taking a job to integrate this new environment, he is filled with regret as he understands that “he was meant to sit quietly some place, alone45”. The West is too ideologically defined to be “some” place and for Mr. Stevens to flourish. People around him are “disdainful46”, the schoolboys feel that Mrs. Algood should call “the police truant” and that Mr. Stevens would probably be better off in “the nut house47”, for such a place as the playhouse is not a suitable place for a man in the West48.

    12Goyen very often acknowledged his admiration for Flannery O’Connor49. In a review of her debut novel Wise Blood, he writes that the “world” she depicts “is one of clashing in a wilderness50”. He feels that in this world, “all living things have vanished and what remains exists in a redemptionless clashing of unending vengeance, alienated from any source of understanding, the absence of which does not even define a world of darkness, not even that—for there has been no light to take away51”. In “Tenant in the Garden”, Goyen follows in O’Connor’s tracks as he describes the neighbors “standing at the edge of the garden, listening and whispering to each other”: “then suddenly the whole neighborhood seemed to be at each other’s throat and one of the officials of the town had to come back and ask the group either be quiet or go to their houses52”. The neighbors turn into a mob that is waiting for the opportunity to eliminate the intruder once the officials have decided that Mr. Stevens cannot stay. Fortunately for him, the authorities do not work hand in hand with the people and he succeeds in leaving without being attacked.

    13The Principal’s perspective on Mr. Stevens is also helpful in attempting to understand the evil of the neighborhood: he defines the little man as a “misfit” for, just like other print-shop teachers, he turned out to be unreliable. Mr. Stevens is thus reminiscent of Melville’s Bartleby, who is also connected to the world of letters and therefore to words—not to say to the Word—and who decides not to do what was expected of him. Mr. Stevens’ decision not to teach a class of disrespectful children constitutes his own take on Bartleby’s choice not to do what his employer requires of him. Although Mr. Stevens does not question the capitalistic ideals of his country, he obviously does not approve of the savagery of the children he is supposed to teach. Like Bartleby, it is his silence that speaks more than his words and his presence that leads people astray. He is a messiah with a mission, a manifest destiny to civilize the wilderness, but it is only once he has been evicted from the playhouse that his absent presence becomes meaningful for those who came into close contact with him.

    The Garden as a crossroads between good and evil

    14“The little old gray lady from next door”, tells Mr. Stevens: “‘I am very glad you have moved in. It’ s nice to see your light at night’53.” This comment calls to mind what Goyen told Robert Phillips in an interview where he remembered picking up Carson McCullers at the airport with her mother:

    “When she saw her daughter step out of the plane, she turned to me and said ‘I seen the little lamp’ […]. When Carson reached us, she said ‘Carson, you know what I told Bill when you appeared? […] I told him that I seen the little lamp.’ Carson burst into tears. I said, ‘Please tell me what this is that hurts you so.’ She said, ‘Well, it’ s that beautiful story called ‘The Doll’ s House’ by Katherine Mansfield. It’s the last line of the story. A poor little girl peeks in a garden at a doll’s house owned by a snobbish family, and sees this glowing little lamp inside. Later when the little girl’s sister asks why there is a curious glow in her eye, she says, ‘I seen the little lamp’54.”

    15The interview was conducted in 1975, the year Goyen’s Collected Stories came out. Since he had undoubtedly read the proofs of the volume, “Tenant in the Garden” was fresh in his mind and though he does not draw any parallel between his story and this memory, the similarities are blatant. In Katherine Mansfield’s story “The Doll’s House”, the lamp also has a special quality for Kezia who “like[s] [it] frightfully” because “the lamp was perfect. It seemed to smile at Kezia, to say, ‘I live here.’ The lamp was real55”. Mr. Stevens is the one who brings light to the playhouse and he also brings it light for the rest of the community. Kezia is the one who is tempted to show the little lamp to the Kelvey girls from the start. Even though she has been told that she should not mix with them because they do not belong to the same class, Kezia eventually gives in to temptation and when she has an opportunity to share the sight of the lamp with the Kelveys, she seizes it. It does not take long for her Aunt to appear and scare the Kelveys away, but what matters is that they have seen the lamp, they seem to have understood something they cannot put into words. At the end of the story silence prevails but the reader is tempted to think that they have grasped that even if they have been assigned an uncomfortable place in society, they are still able to see the light, to see hope when it seems to be gone.

    16To a certain extent Mr. Stevens himself is the light. For Jay S. Paul, “he is the embodiment of the neighbors’ meeting; a story himself, he personifies the role of story in a community. Though he soon leaves the neighborhood, his presence lives on, shared56”. The narrator thus appears as a kind of Nemesis who avenges the man who was wronged by telling his story. As is often the case in Goyen’s stories, the narrative voice is anonymous; it speaks of the community but not necessarily for it. He once declared: “It’s the hidden life I’m talking about57”; “many of my stories were almost ballads—saying that I’m on my way, I’m just passing through, I’ve sung my song, now I’m going on, I just stopped by here58”. By telling the story, by singing his song, the narrator becomes one with Mr. Stevens. Following the pastoral ideal that was introduced by Thomas Jefferson and turning himself into Mr. Stevens’ mouthpiece, he seems to nourish hopes that “America somehow could be transformed into a garden, a permanently rural republic, then its citizens might escape from the terrible sequence of power struggles, wars, and cruel repression59”.

    17As Mr. Stevens gets ready to leave the garden, music can be heard from another house: Mrs. Pace’s daughter-in-law, Agnes, is playing “The Turkish March”. Significantly, Agnes cannot have children and her piano has become her sole reason for living—unable to create life, she creates harmonies. It is thus quite paradoxical that she should be the one who called the police to tell on Mr. Stevens and that her music will later fill the air while a community takes shape in the playhouse. The threat was introduced when, upon witnessing the re-enactment of Alice in Wonderland’s tea party60, Agnes told Mrs. Pace: “‘I’ m so mixed up today. I don’t know whether to call the police or go join the party’61.” But it is only confirmed later when the first breath of the community to be is exhaled: Mrs. Pace has escaped the attention of Agnes to sit in the rocking chair in the playhouse and at first Mrs. Algood believes that Mr. Stevens has returned: “‘You scared me to death; I thought it was him!’—the very first words that she had spoken to the old lady in many a year62.” Thanks to Mr. Stevens’ brief stay in the garden and in the playhouse, “‘a feeling of home’63” has settled. Mrs. Algood is so enthusiastic about the feelings that she is experiencing that she tells her neighbor: “‘You are welcome to come here whenever you can sneak out […]. You may replace Mr. Stevens’64.”

    18Even though Mr. Stevens is gone, he made, like Mr. de Persia in Goyen’s Come, the Restorer, “a Garden of Eden [there]65”—by restoring the community. The man who was perceived as evil because he was different has brought meaning to the life of a community: like Cousin Lymon in McCullers’ The Ballad of the Sad Café, the freak initiated a change that benefitted everyone, he is “a savior and a holy man66”. The situation that is portrayed in “Tenant in the Garden” is a nice variation of the Greek myth of Philoctetes, which Goyen was fond of67: Philoctetes is “a figure with both a gift and a defect, a figure who despite his gift is abandoned by others because of the defect—an exile, an estranged person68”. Fortunately Mrs. Algood and Mrs. Pace came into close contact with Mr. Stevens and saw the light he was shedding on their lives: Mrs. Algood finds herself speaking to people with whom she had lost touch (Mrs. Pace and Mrs. Stokes) and even Mr. Stevens’ first landlady and her brother join in. Mr. Stevens thus acted as a pharmakon by exposing both the evil and the goodness in the garden.

    ***

    19“Tenant in the Garden” appears to be a story about the creation of an ecclesia, namely an assembly or church. Stevens, like the original Steven in the Bible, is both a deacon (servant) and martyr (witness) to another way of living. The original Steven was responsible for seeing that the foreign widows were not excluded from the community in Jerusalem. In Goyen’s story, Stevens brings together the widow Algood (goodness), the widow Pace (peace), Bishop Jack (diminutive form of James who was Steven’s bishop in Jerusalem) and their poor widow sister (who has no name and is therefore representative). Their community is formed to the sound of the music played by Agnes (meaning the “holy one”). They meet in a child’s playhouse—a logical location for as Christ said, “only those who become like a little child may enter the kingdom of Heaven”. Mr. Stevens’ short stay in Napa Valley is turned into myth through the act of storytelling69: he is the enchanter who gives meaning to the playhouse and his presence has helped redefine a space for women. His home is undoubtedly elsewhere but thanks to him Mrs. Algood has found a place where all can be good. As Goyen puts it: “All great things are in small things70.”

    Bibliographie

    Ballorain Rollande, “Interview with William Goyen”, in Repusseau Patrice (ed.), Delta, no 9: William Goyen, November 1979, p. 3-45.

    Bennett Patrick, “William Goyen: A Poet Telling Stories”, in Bennett Patrick (ed.) Talking with Texas Writers: Twelve Interviews, College Station, A & M University Press, 1980, p. 227-247.

    Gibbons Reginald, “An Interview with William Goyen (1982)”, in Goyen William, Had I a Hundred Mouths: Short Stories 1947-1983, London, Serpent’s Tail, 1988 [1985], p. 249-275.

    Gibbons Reginald, William Goyen: A Study of the Short Fiction, Boston: Twayne, 1991.

    Gleeson-White Sarah, Strange Bodies: Gender and Identity in the Novels of Carson McCullers, Tuscaloosa, The University of Alabama Press, 2003.

    Goyen William, “The Evil”, The Illiterati, no 5, 1948, p. 3-4.

    Goyen William, The House of Breath, Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 1999 [1950].

    Goyen William, “Unending Vengeance”, New York Times Book Review, May 18, 1952, p. 4, reprinted in Fleurdorge Claude (ed.), Delta, no 2: Flannery O’Connor et le réalisme des lointains, March 1976, p. 31-32.

    Goyen William, Come, the Restorer: A Novel, Garden City, Doubleday, 1974.

    Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, The Collected Stories of William Goyen, Garden City, Doubleday, 1975, p. 217-229.

    Goyen William, Goyen: Autobiographical Essays, Notebooks, Evocations, Interviews, Gibbons Reginald (ed.), Austin, University of Texas Press, 2007.

    Igo John, “Learning to See Simply: An Interview with William Goyen”, Southwest Review, no 65, 1980, p. 267-284.

    Lytle Andrew Nelson, “How Many Miles to Babylon”, in Rubin Louis D. and Jacobs Robert D. (ed.), Southern Renascence: The Literature of the Modern South, 1953, Baltimore, The John Hopkins Press, 1966, p. 31-34.

    Mansfield Katherine, “The Doll’s House”, The Dove’s Nest and Other Stories, 1923, reprinted in The Collected Stories, London, Penguin, 2001, p. 383-391.

    Marx Leo, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1973 [1964].

    O’Connor Flannery, Mystery and Manners: Occasional Prose, Fitzgerald Sally and Fitzgerald Robert (ed.), New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969.

    Paul Jay S., “‘Marvellous Reciprocity’: The Fiction of William Goyen”, Critique: Studies in Modern Fiction, vol. 19, no 2, 1977, p. 77-91

    Phillips Robert, William Goyen, Boston, Twayne, 1979.

    Simpson Lewis P., “Garden Myth”, in Wilson Charles Reagan (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 4: Myth, Manners, and Memory, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, p. 77-79.

    Thoreau Henry David, “Walking”, in Hall Witherell Elizabeth (ed.), Henry David Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems, New York, Library of America, 2001, p. 225-255.

    Turner Frederick Jackson, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/turner/chapter1.html], consulted on 15/05/2013.

    Vauthier Simone, “The Teller-Listener Situation: Notes on The House of Breath”, in Repusseau Patrice (ed.), Delta, no 9: William Goyen, November 1979, p. 141-169.

    Notes de bas de page

    1Goyen William, “While You Were Away”, in Gibbons Reginald (ed.), Goyen: Autobiographical Essays, Notebooks, Evocations, Interviews, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2007, p. 45.

    2Simpson Lewis P., “Garden Myth”, in Wilson Charles Reagan (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, Volume 4, Myth, Manners, and Memory, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, p. 79.

    3Lytle Andrew Nelson, “How Many Miles to Babylon”, in Rubin Louis D. and Jacobs Robert D. (ed.), Southern Renascence: The Literature of the Modern South, 1953, Baltimore, The John Hopkins Press, 1966, p. 34.

    4O’Connor Flannery, “The Regional Writer”, in Fitzgerald Sally and Fitzgerald Robert (ed.), Mystery and Manners: Occasional Prose, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969, p. 59.

    5Igo John, “Learning to See Simply: An Interview with William Goyen”, Southwest Review, vol. 65, no 3, Summer 1980, p. 268.

    6Goyen William, The House of Breath, Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 1999 [1950], p. 3.

    7Idem.

    8Goyen William, “The Evil”, The Illiterati, no 5, 1948, p. 4.

    9Ibid., p. 3.

    10Goyen William, The House of Breath, op. cit., p. 3.

    11Ibid., p. 154.

    12Vauthier Simone, “The Teller-Listener Situation: Notes on The House of Breath”, in Repusseau Patrice (ed.), Delta, no 9: William Goyen, November 1979, p. 147, my emphasis.

    13The story was first published in Cosmopolitan in May 1962 and is hardly ever discussed in critical essays. It is only mentioned in passing in Jay S. Paul’s “‘Marvellous Reciprocity’: The Fiction of William Goyen”, Critique: Studies in Modern Fiction, vol. 19, no 2, 1977, p. 77-91; and discussed briefly in a section of Robert Phillips’s monograph William Goyen, Boston, Twayne, 1979.

    14Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, The Collected Stories of William Goyen, Garden City, Doubleday, 1975, p. 218.

    15It works like the café in Carson McCullers’s famous novella The Ballad of the Sad Café, which was first published in 1943 and which Goyen probably knew, though he felt that McCullers’work was “too slight, […] mannered, affected, thin, coy” (Ballorain Rollande, “Interview with William Goyen”, in Repusseau Patrice [ed.], op. cit., p. 23).

    16Turner Frederick Jackson, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/turner/chapter1.html], consulted on 15/05/2013.

    17Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 217.

    18Ibid., p. 219.

    19Ibid., p. 217.

    20Idem.

    21Ibid., p. 225.

    22Phillips Robert, William Goyen, op. cit., p. 102.

    23Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219.

    24Ibid., p. 218-219.

    25Ibid., p. 218.

    26Ibid., p. 222.

    27Ibid., p. 228.

    28Ibid., p. 218.

    29Ibid., p. 223.

    30Idem.

    31Ibid., p. 218.

    32Ibid., p. 222.

    33This is reminiscent of the pair formed by Miss Amelia and Cousin Lymon in McCullers’s “The Ballad of the Sad Café” though the characters in Goyen’s story do not amount to “physical and psychological misfits” (Gleeson-White Sarah, Strange Bodies: Gender and Identity in the Novels of Carson McCullers, Tuscaloosa, The University of Alabama Press, 2003, p. 2) and yet they are perceived that way by some of the townspeople.

    34Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 226.

    35Ibid., p. 227.

    36Ibid., p. 219.

    37Ibid., p. 220.

    38Gleeson-White Sarah, Strange Bodies…, op. cit., p. 114.

    39A scene that precedes the aforequoted description shows him “slid[ing] into his sleeping bag, zippering himself up into it like a mummy” in order to feel “safe and hidden and warm in his peaceful dwelling” (Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219).

    40Idem.

    41Idem.

    42Idem.

    43Thoreau Henry David, “Walking”, in Hall Witherell Elizabeth (ed.), Henry David Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems, New York, Library of America, 2001, p. 325-236.

    44Turner Frederick Jackson, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, op. cit.

    45Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219.

    46Idem.

    47Ibid., p. 221.

    48To Mrs. Algood’s “The playhouse is his home, and as good as any”, they reply: “Not where we come from”, idem. The way the children address Mrs. Algood also points to her own status as a foreigner since she is Swedish.

    49See for instance Ballorain Rollande, “Interview with William Goyen”, op. cit., p. 23.

    50Goyen William, “Unending Vengeance”, New York Times Book Review, May 18, 1952, p. 4. This text is reprinted in Fleurdorge Claude (ed.), Delta, no 2: Flannery O’Connor et le réalisme des lointains, March 1976, p. 31-32.

    51Ibid., p. 31-32.

    52Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 225.

    53Ibid., p. 223.

    54Phillips Robert, “Interview with William Goyen”, in William Goyen, op. cit., p. 126.

    55Mansfield Katherine, “The Doll’s House”, in The Dove’s Nest and Other Stories, 1923, reprinted in The Collected Stories, London, Penguin, 2001, p. 384.

    56Paul Jay S., “‘Marvellous Reciprocity’: The Fiction of William Goyen”, op. cit., p. 83.

    57Gibbons Reginald, “An Interview with William Goyen (1982)”, in Goyen William, Had I a Hundred Mouths: Short Stories 1947-1983, London, Serpent’s Tail, 1988 [1985], p. 262.

    58Ibid., p. 267.

    59Marx Leo, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1973 [1964], p. 138.

    60Mr. Stevens, Mrs. Algood and the principal are described as a “little bald-headed man, a giant woman and a pumpkin shaped man all having a tea party on the front porch of the playhouse”, Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 222.

    61Idem.

    62Ibid., p. 227.

    63Idem.

    64Idem.

    65Goyen William, Come, the Restorer: A Novel, Garden City, Doubleday, 1974, p. 10.

    66Bennett Patrick, “William Goyen: A Poet Telling Stories”, Talking with Texas Writers: Twelve Interviews, College Station, A & M University Press, 1980, p. 244.

    67For Goyen, “in each of us is a mythical figure […]. I feel that the mythic exists in us all, and that we live ancient lives and that we are, at least, counterparts in many ways to legends”, Igo John, “Learning to See Simply…”, op. cit., p. 273.

    68Gibbons Reginald, William Goyen: A Study of the Short Fiction, Boston, Twayne, 1991, p. 57.

    69This illustrates Goyen’s belief that art does not purge “as much as it enlightens”. Bennett Patrick, “William Goyen…”, op. cit., p. 242.

    70Igo John, “Learning to See Simply…”, op. cit., p. 268.

    Auteur

    • Gérald Préher

      Enseignant-chercheur, HDR à l’Institut catholique de Lille et membre du laboratoire CIRPaLL à l’université d’Angers. Il est associate editor du Journal of the Short Story in English et responsable éditorial de la revue Résonances-Femmes. Il a co-dirigé plusieurs ouvrages consacrés à la littérature et à la culture américaines (notamment sur la nouvelle dans la littérature du Sud, la représentation du religieux, la violence et le crime, ou, plus spécifiquement sur des auteurs parmi lesquels Ernest J. Gaines, Richard Ford, John Steinbeck, Elizabeth Spencer ou encore William Faulkner). Ses recherches portent sur la littérature du Sud, l’écriture féminine et la nouvelle.

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    1Goyen William, “While You Were Away”, in Gibbons Reginald (ed.), Goyen: Autobiographical Essays, Notebooks, Evocations, Interviews, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2007, p. 45.

    2Simpson Lewis P., “Garden Myth”, in Wilson Charles Reagan (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, Volume 4, Myth, Manners, and Memory, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, p. 79.

    3Lytle Andrew Nelson, “How Many Miles to Babylon”, in Rubin Louis D. and Jacobs Robert D. (ed.), Southern Renascence: The Literature of the Modern South, 1953, Baltimore, The John Hopkins Press, 1966, p. 34.

    4O’Connor Flannery, “The Regional Writer”, in Fitzgerald Sally and Fitzgerald Robert (ed.), Mystery and Manners: Occasional Prose, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969, p. 59.

    5Igo John, “Learning to See Simply: An Interview with William Goyen”, Southwest Review, vol. 65, no 3, Summer 1980, p. 268.

    6Goyen William, The House of Breath, Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 1999 [1950], p. 3.

    7Idem.

    8Goyen William, “The Evil”, The Illiterati, no 5, 1948, p. 4.

    9Ibid., p. 3.

    10Goyen William, The House of Breath, op. cit., p. 3.

    11Ibid., p. 154.

    12Vauthier Simone, “The Teller-Listener Situation: Notes on The House of Breath”, in Repusseau Patrice (ed.), Delta, no 9: William Goyen, November 1979, p. 147, my emphasis.

    13The story was first published in Cosmopolitan in May 1962 and is hardly ever discussed in critical essays. It is only mentioned in passing in Jay S. Paul’s “‘Marvellous Reciprocity’: The Fiction of William Goyen”, Critique: Studies in Modern Fiction, vol. 19, no 2, 1977, p. 77-91; and discussed briefly in a section of Robert Phillips’s monograph William Goyen, Boston, Twayne, 1979.

    14Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, The Collected Stories of William Goyen, Garden City, Doubleday, 1975, p. 218.

    15It works like the café in Carson McCullers’s famous novella The Ballad of the Sad Café, which was first published in 1943 and which Goyen probably knew, though he felt that McCullers’work was “too slight, […] mannered, affected, thin, coy” (Ballorain Rollande, “Interview with William Goyen”, in Repusseau Patrice [ed.], op. cit., p. 23).

    16Turner Frederick Jackson, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/turner/chapter1.html], consulted on 15/05/2013.

    17Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 217.

    18Ibid., p. 219.

    19Ibid., p. 217.

    20Idem.

    21Ibid., p. 225.

    22Phillips Robert, William Goyen, op. cit., p. 102.

    23Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219.

    24Ibid., p. 218-219.

    25Ibid., p. 218.

    26Ibid., p. 222.

    27Ibid., p. 228.

    28Ibid., p. 218.

    29Ibid., p. 223.

    30Idem.

    31Ibid., p. 218.

    32Ibid., p. 222.

    33This is reminiscent of the pair formed by Miss Amelia and Cousin Lymon in McCullers’s “The Ballad of the Sad Café” though the characters in Goyen’s story do not amount to “physical and psychological misfits” (Gleeson-White Sarah, Strange Bodies: Gender and Identity in the Novels of Carson McCullers, Tuscaloosa, The University of Alabama Press, 2003, p. 2) and yet they are perceived that way by some of the townspeople.

    34Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 226.

    35Ibid., p. 227.

    36Ibid., p. 219.

    37Ibid., p. 220.

    38Gleeson-White Sarah, Strange Bodies…, op. cit., p. 114.

    39A scene that precedes the aforequoted description shows him “slid[ing] into his sleeping bag, zippering himself up into it like a mummy” in order to feel “safe and hidden and warm in his peaceful dwelling” (Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219).

    40Idem.

    41Idem.

    42Idem.

    43Thoreau Henry David, “Walking”, in Hall Witherell Elizabeth (ed.), Henry David Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems, New York, Library of America, 2001, p. 325-236.

    44Turner Frederick Jackson, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, op. cit.

    45Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 219.

    46Idem.

    47Ibid., p. 221.

    48To Mrs. Algood’s “The playhouse is his home, and as good as any”, they reply: “Not where we come from”, idem. The way the children address Mrs. Algood also points to her own status as a foreigner since she is Swedish.

    49See for instance Ballorain Rollande, “Interview with William Goyen”, op. cit., p. 23.

    50Goyen William, “Unending Vengeance”, New York Times Book Review, May 18, 1952, p. 4. This text is reprinted in Fleurdorge Claude (ed.), Delta, no 2: Flannery O’Connor et le réalisme des lointains, March 1976, p. 31-32.

    51Ibid., p. 31-32.

    52Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 225.

    53Ibid., p. 223.

    54Phillips Robert, “Interview with William Goyen”, in William Goyen, op. cit., p. 126.

    55Mansfield Katherine, “The Doll’s House”, in The Dove’s Nest and Other Stories, 1923, reprinted in The Collected Stories, London, Penguin, 2001, p. 384.

    56Paul Jay S., “‘Marvellous Reciprocity’: The Fiction of William Goyen”, op. cit., p. 83.

    57Gibbons Reginald, “An Interview with William Goyen (1982)”, in Goyen William, Had I a Hundred Mouths: Short Stories 1947-1983, London, Serpent’s Tail, 1988 [1985], p. 262.

    58Ibid., p. 267.

    59Marx Leo, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1973 [1964], p. 138.

    60Mr. Stevens, Mrs. Algood and the principal are described as a “little bald-headed man, a giant woman and a pumpkin shaped man all having a tea party on the front porch of the playhouse”, Goyen William, “Tenant in the Garden”, op. cit., p. 222.

    61Idem.

    62Ibid., p. 227.

    63Idem.

    64Idem.

    65Goyen William, Come, the Restorer: A Novel, Garden City, Doubleday, 1974, p. 10.

    66Bennett Patrick, “William Goyen: A Poet Telling Stories”, Talking with Texas Writers: Twelve Interviews, College Station, A & M University Press, 1980, p. 244.

    67For Goyen, “in each of us is a mythical figure […]. I feel that the mythic exists in us all, and that we live ancient lives and that we are, at least, counterparts in many ways to legends”, Igo John, “Learning to See Simply…”, op. cit., p. 273.

    68Gibbons Reginald, William Goyen: A Study of the Short Fiction, Boston, Twayne, 1991, p. 57.

    69This illustrates Goyen’s belief that art does not purge “as much as it enlightens”. Bennett Patrick, “William Goyen…”, op. cit., p. 242.

    70Igo John, “Learning to See Simply…”, op. cit., p. 268.

    Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne

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    Préher, G. (2017). When the Garden of Good Turns out to Be an Evil Place: William Goyen’s “Tenant in the Garden”. In E. Vernadakis, J.-M. Yvard, & G. Yvard-Djahansouz (éds.), Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. https://doi.org/10.4000/14mzz
    Préher, Gérald. « When the Garden of Good Turns Out to Be an Evil Place: William Goyen’s “Tenant in the Garden” ». In Le Jardin Et Ses Mythes Aux États-Unis Et En Grande-Bretagne, édité par Emmanuel Vernadakis, Jean-Michel Yvard, et Gelareh Yvard-Djahansouz. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017. doi:10.4000/14mzz.
    Préher, Gérald. « When the Garden of Good Turns Out to Be an Evil Place: William Goyen’s “Tenant in the Garden” ». Le Jardin Et Ses Mythes Aux États-Unis Et En Grande-Bretagne, édité par Emmanuel Vernadakis et al., Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, https://doi.org/10.4000/14mzz.

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    Vernadakis, E., Yvard, J.-M., & Yvard-Djahansouz, G. (éds.). (2017). Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. https://doi.org/10.4000/14n7g
    Vernadakis, Emmanuel, Jean-Michel Yvard, et Gelareh Yvard-Djahansouz, éd. Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017. doi:10.4000/14n7g.
    Vernadakis, Emmanuel, et al., éditeurs. Le jardin et ses mythes aux États-Unis et en Grande-Bretagne. Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, https://doi.org/10.4000/14n7g.
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