Introduction *

1With the expansion of Arab power in early medieval times, numerous works of Classical, Persian and Indian authors were translated into Arabic, including treatises about veterinary medicine, e.g., the hippiatry of Theomnestos, which was possibly translated by Ḥunain ibn Isḥāq into Arabic in the first half of the ninth century AD1. In addition, an increasing number of comments and compilations of medical texts composed primarily in Arabic became available2. Therefore, the Arabian literature was attributed a prominent role in the conservation and transmission of the knowledge about ancient horse medicine3.

2Affinities between Greek hippiatrics and treatises on horse medicine in Arabic have been postulated4, but most of the Corpus could not be verified due to the lack of translations of these texts. This also applies to the Kitāb al-furūsīya wa-l-bayṭara of Muḥammad ibn Ya‘qūb ibn aḫī ḥizām al-Ḫuttulī, one of the oldest available Arabian texts about hippology and hippiatry, which was written during the late 9th century AD.

3Up to now the widespread conviction about the cultural and historical merits of the Arab culture is based upon the fact that a transmission of scientific knowledge can be evidenced into two directions : Arabian scientists took up and translated the texts of the ancient Greek authors, which were mediated to the Occident through Byzantium or to Europe by Spain and Italy. In the course of this process, an own scientific terminology developed5.

4In this respect, the translation of early medieval Arabian texts about hippiatry is of high scientific interest. Furthermore attention should be paid to the fact that the knowledge about horse medicine not only was transmitted from the Orient to the Occident, but also that therapies as well as theories seem to originate from the (Far) East.

5This study of the Kitāb al-furūsīya wa-l-bayṭara of Muḥammad ibn Ya‘qūb ibn aḫī ḥizām al-Ḫuttulī is meant to clarify exemplarily if this work can be regarded to link eastern and western veterinary tradition and to which extent a dependency upon the Greek hippiatrics can be observed on the one hand, and to which extent it is based on an independent Arabic tradition, on the other hand.

Life and work of Ibn aḫī ḥizām

6Ibn aḫī ḥizām lived in the second half of the ninth century and was equerry at the court of caliph al-Mu‘tāṣim, al-Mutawakkil or al-Mu‘taḍid6. He esteemed his Kitab to have the same status as Galens’ θεрαπευτικὴ μέθοδος. At least eighteen copies of this book about hippology and hippiatry are known, including versions in Persian and Turkish language7. Our paper is based on the German translation of the manuscript LOr 528 of the library of the University of Leiden, a copy which is, according to the philologist Dr. Martin Heide, characterised by the completeness of its contents and its continuous vocalisation8. The work is written in classical Arabic. In order to complete problematic passages and to provide a critical edition, additional manuscripts were consulted : Leiden 1408 (= Cod. 299, 1 Warn.), 1409 (= Cod. 299, 2 Warn.), Brit. Mus. 1365, Brit. Mus. Suppl. 813 and Chester Beatty 3073, 3220, 3319, 3889. But in most of them, parts are missing and the texts are not vocalised. Moreover, the copyists tend to leave out difficult passages or reformulated them ; also the order of the chapters may be different.

Structure of ms LOr 528

7Following the title of the Kitāb, the work is divided into two parts, « furūsīya » and « bayṭara ». In the first thirty pages hippological matters are discussed, like animals refusing obedience, horse-breeding, the significance of colours or signs and the ailment of the different parts of the body. The second part is dedicated to the hippiatry. It contains descriptions of the different conditions and begins on folio thirty with chapters concerning the diseases of the extremities. Then paragraphs about affections of the skin, the eyes, and the urogenital, the intestinal and the respiratory systems follow, as well as paragraphs about colic, tetanus, fever, intoxication, and bites of snakes or scorpions. From folio fifty onwards the author informs us about therapy and treatment. Thus, the contents of the manuscript LOr 528 are separated into diseases and therapeutic measures, but for the medicohistorical evaluation both aspects have been combined.

8Due to the lack of modern translations or lexica, a terminology had to be developed in order to make the contents understandable. As a rule, the descriptions of the diseases are brief, making an interpretation in terms of modern diseases difficult or impossible. On the other hand the names of the diseases could have changed repeatedly over the centuries or may have varied between veterinary and human medicine.

On the structure of the paragraphs

9The Kitāb appears well-structured as reflected by the arrangement of the chapters and their contents. A formulistic headline mentions the name of the disease and the body area affected, for example « Concerning the Intišār, namely at the tendon of the fore and pelvic limb ». The descriptions of the diseases generally include the causes and/or the pathogenesis, the symptoms, sometimes an instruction how to make the diagnosis, and mostly a prognosis. Several prescriptions and therapeutic measures, advices and even warnings are given, arranged according to the varying degrees of a condition. Sometimes a recipe is added, in case one is travelling with his horse. Nearly each paragraph closes with a religious invocation, e.g., « It is useful, God willing, to whom is honour and greatness ».

Diseases affecting the extremities

10In this paper, focus will be on seven diseases, affecting the distal extremities of the horse : the « Intišār », the « Mašāš » and the « ’Aran » are described in detail, which is in contrast to the much shorter paragraphs about « Šaẓā », « Zawā’īd », « DaḪas » and « Saraṭān ». Whereas « Intišār » refers to a swelling of the tendon, « Mašāš » was a cavernous swelling of the bone up to the size of a walnut caused by traumatic insults like stones, stepping in scales of wood or drubs. But there exists also a soft and meaty form of it. Possible diagnoses of « Mašāš » would be periostitis ossificans, contusion of the tendon, traumatic bursitis or haematoma. The paragraphs about the « ’Aran » evidence symptoms characteristic of an eczema in the fetlock flexure and/or chronic dermatitis. « Šaẓā » describes a proliferating, inflamed swelling at the top or bottom of the tendon above the fetlock, which becomes malignant. Conceivably we are dealing here with a rupture of a tendon. Next comes a disease named « Zawā’īd », characterised by hard, bone-like indurations around the fetlock flexure. These symptoms could be indicative for an arthropathia deformans, overgrowing granulation or a neoplasm, for example an equine sarcoid. Another disease called « DaḪas » refers to a node between the fetlock and the hoof, which may exceed in size a date kernel and is caused by improper cauterisation or phlebotomy. Probably we are dealing here with a case of thrombophlebitis or coronet phlegmone. Saraṭān is an excessive growing tissue spreading over the fetlock. At a later stage, it becomes harder. Possible diagnoses could be chronic hyperplastic dermatitis or « proud flesh ».

11To get a better impression of the contents and the writing-style of Ibn aḫī ḥizām, the chapter on « Intišār » will be dealt with in more detail, to give but an example.

Intišār

Causes and symptoms

12The « Intišār » is caused by exhausting work, long-term running or banging the fore limb against the manger, which results in a swelling of the tendon. Conceivably we are dealing with an inflammation of the tendinous arch, because, according to the author, the swelling could be located at the top, at the middle or at the base of the tendon9. In the following paragraph, Ibn aḫī ḥizām explains, how to proceed to reach a diagnosis :

« The symptoms of “Intišār” : You will see that the tendon is already fatten and swollen and round, so that you will find it damaged, if you palpate it ; and healed, if it is like a chord on the rear side of the fore limb. This [procedure] does not need an expert (and with respect to the expert, looking closely makes everything else completely dispensable), but you must look sharply. If it is located at a position which is hidden from the palpating person, go with your hand over it. If one’s hand runs over it and if you reach a swelling or damage, you have found the lesion, God willing, to whom is honour and greatness. » (32^v)

13Two aspects of this paragraph are remarkable : firstly Ibn aḫī ḥizām forbears from the further differentiation of the affected anatomical structures. In addition, although lameness is a main symptom, it is not mentioned by him. Maybe the author assumed that this is evident to the reader. However, the importance of the stability of the tendons is stressed :

« If the tendon is loose, you can put it to a test. Because [the tendon] is the bar of the joints and their connections, and if the tendon becomes loose, you can see, that the connections do not persist but will rather move lightly » (54^r).

Therapy

14Based on his practical experience ibn aḫī ḥizām recommends a selection of eight therapeutic measures, prescriptions, advices and warnings, sorted according to the increasing degrees of the disease. For the treatment of an early stage of the « Intišār », ibn aḫī ḥizām advised to apply an unguent composed of substances with disinfecting and stimulating effects : aloe10, myrrh11, gum Arabic12, « morath13 », resin14 and althea15 were mixed with the white of an egg and warm blood. This unguent should be applied up to the hairline, after which the region affected was dressed with bandages, which were fixed with glue and finally covered with silk bandages16. If one would like to remove this fomentation, ibn aḫī ḥizām advised not to pull it down. He rather recommended to lead the horse into water and to wait until it peels away (53^v). This advice reflects the practical experience of ibn aḫī ḥizām, which is confirmed also by the following prescription for someone travelling on horse :

« If you are just on the way, and you have to fix the “Intišār” without bandages, take old linseed and fill it in an iron dipper and mix it with hackled borax. Boil it thoroughly and apply it on the tendon of the mount. » (53^v)

15Linseed consists of mucous and adipoid components17, borax has antiseptic qualities18. So this medicine had a cleaning and alleviating effect.

16Old and « knotty » « Intišār » was treated with figs soaked in vinegar. Galen already used both substances for the therapy of hard indurations. He attributed to figs melting energies19, while cooling and drying effects were ascribed to vinegar20. This prescription and the following one are also mentioned in an anonymous Persian treatise, entitled Do Faras-Nameh21.

17For an extensive swelling of the tendon, Ibn aḫī ḥizām recommended another treatment : One should apply repeatedly a fomentation containing the hackled fat of the tail of a sheep22 in order to cool down the heated tendon (54^r), which will cause the fat to liquefy. If someone is disgusted by the smell of the fat, the hackled tail can be mixed with dried dates. Then the animal should be moved about increasingly. In addition, the horse should be allowed to wade into the water several times daily, until the swelling is reduced. Again ibn aḫī ḥizām shows he is a practitioner : he combines a simple therapeutic measure with a sort of physiotherapy, which stimulates blood circulation and supports recovery.

18Aggravated forms of the « Intišār » were tackled by surgical measures, more precisely by incisions in the tendon23. But first of all, so the advice of the author, one had to attend to an optimal care of the hoof and the horse had to be shoed. Here is an other important fact, namely the explicit mentioning of the use of horseshoes, a practice, which came into use in Europe from the early Middle Ages onward24.

19Cauterisation was considered the ultimate treatment for curing the « Intišār ». It had to be applied only in case of an adequate indication. That ibn aḫī ḥizām is an experienced practitioner is reflected by the fact that he recommends to draw a sketch on the skin first before cauterisation, to use fine needles and to burn with equal intensity. Finally, he advises to fix the limb properly while treating the horse and explains why : « I have already seen mounts, whose [extremities] were broken by falling down » (52^v). For the aftertreatment of the cauterised area a prescription was recommended, which shows parallels to the texts of Apsyrtos and Theomnestos (Hipp. Berol. XCVI 4, 7)25. It was composed of wax26, liquid pitch27, lard28, olive oil29 and salt30 and applied with a feather for seven days (55^v). However, the ingredients mentioned were well-known in human medicine, so this recipe probably formed part of the widespread Galenic tradition.

20Finally, in case of a bad prognosis, for example, if the lower part of the tendon was broadened or even ruptured, ibn aḫī ḥizām advises to abstain from therapy and face the facts « You can not do anything against it, so understand this » (32^v).

Ethical aspects

21The foregoing illustrates an attitude, which is also reflected in another interesting passus, which demonstrates, that this Kitāb imparts not only medical knowledge, but also the ethical aspects of the veterinary profession :

« Be attentive, that your horse is only treated by an hippiater, who is sensitive, sensing, honest and skilful, because I have sometimes seen hippiaters, who treated mounts with something, for which there was no need, so the owner of the mount and someone, who walked past, were frightened, in order to achieve maximum reward and to be admired by the crowd. The mount perishes of it and he does not take care of it, and I have seen frequently a mount, which was ruined by such a treatment, so understand this. » (55^v)

22Whereas in his 4th century AD Mulomedicina, Vegetius formulates a similar warning against the lucre of veterinarians, this enumeration of the qualities of a veterinarian represents a novelty. The ethical side of the veterinary profession was also dealt with by ibn al-Munḏir four centuries later, this time, however, inspired by the oath of Hippocrates31.

23In the manuscript LOr 299 a remark about the different status of the human and veterinary profession can be deduced from this passage :

« Know, that equine medicine is in [such cases] forgivingly, in contrast to the forbearance of people to doctors… if someone dies, the man [i.e. the doctor] will be killed and the people will defend him [i.e. the patient]. But the hippiater frequently kills mounts and nobody speaks about it, because the mounts are disregarded by the people and most of them do not attend to their diseases. » (M. Heide, in preparation)

24This sentence reflects the bad reputation of the veterinarians, conceivably because only animals with severe conditions were presented to the « baiṭār », who could not do but treat them for the best.

On the dependency on other veterinary treatises

25The passages considered here have been compared with the contents of a representative selection of treatises that circulated in the Mediterranean region and the Orient up to the 14th century. Keeping in mind, that until now, only a part of the manuscript has been translated, the following preliminary conclusions can be made : obvious similarities exist between ibn aḫī ḥizām’s text and Arabian treatises of a later date, e.g., the work of ibn al-‘Awwām, who wrote his agricultural compendium during the twelfth century32, the book an-Nāṣirī of ibn al-Munḍir33, and the already mentioned Persian treatise, Do Faras-Nameh. Parallels to the works of the authors of Antiquity, such as Apsyrtos and Theomnestos, cannot be evidenced relative to the passages referring to the aetiology and symptoms. Two prescriptions (55^v, 59^v.1) may be similar, because of the ingredients used, but this is poor evidence to postulate that the writings of classical authors served as a basis for this part of ibn aḫī ḥizām’s work. However, a comparison of the headlines of the Arabian translation of Theomnestos’ hippiatry (Paris. 2810) and ibn aḫī ḥizām’s book reveals parallels for chapters dealing with internal diseases34. Considering the affections of the extremities and their particular treatment ibn aḫī ḥizām’s treatise appears unique. It, moreover, shows that he was an experienced horse doctor.

26With respect to the horse medicine in the medieval Occident, as illustrated by the texts of, e.g., Jordanus Ruffus from Sicily35 or Johan Alvarez de Salamiella from Spain36, verbatim affinities could not be ascertained. So far, we are unable to detect an influence of Arabian veterinary texts on European medieval hippiatrics. This is in contrast to medieval human medicine, which was definitely influenced by Arabian thinking37. It seems, as if veterinary knowledge was passed onto the next generation by oral rather than by written tradition38.