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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral Knowledge and place Intersecting browsing and location histories The in situ encyclopedia and museum The epistemological functions of localization Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Architectures of memory

    Ce livre est recensé par

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    Geolocated Memory

    Olivier Asselin

    p. 133-146

    Texte intégral Knowledge and place Intersecting browsing and location histories The in situ encyclopedia and museum The epistemological functions of localization Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Texte intégral

    1 Architectures of Memory first and foremost refer not to real places, like the library or museum, but to virtual databases, which have now become the dominant form of memory. I would like to address this perhaps neglected issue in the following dematerialized context: the localization of databases and memory in physical space.

    Knowledge and place

    2To put things simply, one might say that knowledge has to a large extent formed against localization. With writing and then the printing press, knowledge broke free of place. The text - clay or wax tablets, papyrus or parchment scrolls, handwritten or printed books - became the principal means for the production and spread of knowledge. In this same movement, it broke free of its initial medium, the body, the body of the witness, the expert, or the listener; it freed itself from individual memory and voice, from copresence; it was emancipated from place, from the site of production, transmission, and reception, thanks to the allographic dimension of writing, to the virtues of inscription in a medium, to the reproducibility and portability of the book. Knowledge was thus largely delocalized and circulated freely. And this delocalization was also probably closely linked to the idea of the universality of knowledge. To move from the singular to the particular, from the general to the universal, is not only to expand the domain of the objects studied and the community of knowledgeable subjects, it is also to delocalize knowledge.

    3Paradoxically, the spread of knowledge over a vast territory arouses a desire for, a complete fantasy of, totalization, which often amounts to a kind of relocalization. One gets to dreaming of the book of books, like the encyclopedia, but also of the place of places, which may contain all the knowledge in the world in a single structure, like the Mouseion of Alexandria, which included, among other things, a library and museum.

    4The digital revolution has unquestionably intensified all this. With the computer and the web, the database and the network, and with the growth in storage, processing, traffic, and exchange capacities, knowledge is now more dematerialized and delocalized than ever.1 Obviously, this dematerialization and delocalization are mostly a dream. Indeed, while knowledge may have been considerably emancipated, its medium, IT equipment, is still localized: computers, peripheral devices, cords, antennas, servers, etc. The condition of possibility of the cloud - to use a symptomatic metaphor of the database - is gigantic processing centers, with hundreds of servers that, however “green” they may be, rapidly become new electronic waste that ends up in digital scrapheaps usually in the “Third World” (as is the case in Ghana).

    5But the next wave of the digital revolution has complicated things still further, with mobile platforms, intelligent telephones and tablets, all equipped with screens and cameras, an internet connection, and positioning technologies (compass, accelerometer, gyroscope, and GPS). Suddenly, virtual data are relocalized in real space, and their linkage automated in real time, according to the user’s spatial and temporal position and movements.

    6These technologies transform both personal space and public space by creating multiple relationships between the city and the web, between objects in the world and databases, between physical communities and virtual networks. On the one hand, physical data are located on the web, often through mapping software and interfaces; on the other hand, virtual data are often located in physical space, especially through augmented-reality applications. This new state of affairs continues to feed a certain delocalization of knowledge: now more than ever, we can produce and receive data anywhere. But, at the same time, we can also generate and receive data about our position at the exact moment we are there.

    7Knowledge was commonly situated within a series - based on logic, chronology, and narrative, on correlation or succession, causality and teleology. Now it is also situated in space - based on spatiality and localization, on distance and proximity. Along with logic and narrative, the map becomes one of the potential interfaces with the database, a privileged means of storage, organization, and access.2

    Intersecting browsing and location histories

    8The center of this new cartographic culture that connects the web and the world is obviously Google. The company’s official mission is no secret: “To organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.” In the early years (1995-1996), while he was still a doctoral student at Stanford, Larry Page began working on the mathematical structure of the web, using graph theory. Flipping the logic of the system, he was less interested in the links from a given site than the links leading to it (backlinks). With Sergey Brin, another Stanford doctoral student, he developed a sophisticated web crawler and a search engine whose search and page-ranking algorithm not only registered key words but also the number of links leading to a given site and the number of links leading to sites that lead to that site, which turn out to be excellent indicators of “relevance” - on the model of scientific “citations.” That’s how the company was born. And from that point on, Google’s expansion was lightning fast; from the simple search engine it initially was, the company became a worldwide platform for web access, even a way of life, with a browser, a social network, productivity and content tools, an entertainment center, a cloud-computing service, a mobile operating system, and a great deal of research and development devoted to robotics, home automation, artificial intelligence, biotechnologies, and so on.

    9Yet within this narrative, mapping is the sudden and unexpected development that merits our attention. From its founding in 1996, Google was essentially a search engine. But starting in 2004, the company suddenly diversified its operations beyond the search engine and into the realm of geolocation. That same year, it acquired Keyhole, a company that had designed (with significant funding from the CIA) EarthViewer, a program for digital mapping and visualization of geospatial data, which would become Goggle Earth. Keyhole’s founder, John Hanke, joined the Google team to become head of a new division called “Geo.”3 Also in 2004, Google bought Where 2 Technologies, a Danish company that had developed Expedition, a mapping program that in the following year would become the web application Google Maps. And, again in 2004, Google purchased ZipDash, a startup analyzing real-time traffic by using a kind of “implicit” or perhaps involuntary crowdsourcing based on the frequency and duration of cellular communication among users. The technology became part of Google Maps in 2007 under the name Google Traffic.

    10In 2007, Google released Street View, another world map, this one created via panoramic photographs. In 2010 and 2011, Street View began mapping certain building interiors through “indoor maps” and “Business View” (available on Google Maps). In 2014, Street View images, which are regularly updated, were archived and the archive made available, giving the program historical value.

    11Launched in 2005 and updated numerous times, Google Earth aims to incorporate all of Google’s mapping programs. It allows users to access, within the apparent spatial continuity of zooming in and out, all the various views of the earth: a synthetic view of the planet, an aerial view (for cities) or satellite view (outside urban areas), a complete map, 3D modelling of cities, panoramic images from street level (Street View), etc. With certain applications, users can also contribute to the project by posting their photographs or photo spheres (panoramas), 3D models, personal opinions and movements (on My Maps and Google Local Guides), etc. Today, the map continues beyond dry land, with the addition of Google Underwater to Google Earth, and beyond the earth itself, with Google Sky, Google Moon, Google Mars, etc.

    12In 2008, Google launched what would become its most popular phone app, Google Maps, for Android (in 2012 for iOS), equipped with a real-time navigation system, and Google Earth mobile, which incorporates Street View, making the database available in physical space according to cartographic parameters. In 2009, Google came out with Google Latitude, which allows users to share their location with friends, followed by a Location History Tool (now Timeline), which displays the history of their movements by date and time (at first, the locating feature was automatically turned on, but certain users complained and Google made it optional).

    Google Maps, Your Timeline, Location History

    Image

    Google Maps Blog, July 21, 2015). Screenshot.

    13And in 2012, Google created the subsidiary Niantics Labs in order to develop augmented-reality mobile games: Field Trip (2012) and, in particular, Ingress (also in 2012), an extremely popular game (with 14 million downloads) that served as the model for Pokémon Go.4 At first, one might have thought that Google’s sudden foray into geolocation was a marginal part of its business and that Google Maps was simply a side project - a mere route planner - designed to enhance the primary experience of the search engine. But today, after a dozen years of sustained and extensive development that has made Google Maps a platform in its own right, a new interface between the database and the world, it is obvious that it is part of a wider strategy intimately linked to the company’s business model. Accordingly, its ambitious data-geolocation operation isn’t philanthropic; it has no scientific or educational purpose: it is essentially a commercial enterprise.

    14The main source of Google’s income isn’t from sales to individuals, for whom everything is always, or nearly always, free, but from sales of advertising and data to businesses, which make up 90 % of the company’s annual earnings (around 75 billion in 2015). AdWords, Google’s online ad service, allows businesses to acquire an optimal place in the ranking of search results on Google webpages and search engines. Most important, it allows them to use targeted advertising on related personal and business websites or on the search strings of users already interested in similar products (called remarketing) - especially on Gmail, YouTube, Google Maps, and all the Adsensenetwork member sites - across all platforms - computer, tablet, and telephone.5

    15Furthermore, Google Analytics (2005), the web-traffic analytics service (freemium for individuals and premium for businesses), can not only count a website’s visits, it can also follow users on the web over several platforms. The search engine thus allows businesses to access valuable data - more valuable and predictive than surveys because obtained in real time - about the most complex social trends at the very moment they are taking shape, and several days before they settle into place.

    16In this context, data geolocation represents a major development. IP addresses and cookies already made it possible to locate users in a general way (their country, city, local network, and devices) and to track their online habits. But by expanding geolocation and the search history, Google can obtain still more detailed information and offer much more precise tracking, which includes users’ browsing patterns as well as their physical movements in cities and beyond. This is how Google Trends (2006) is able to provide precious real-time information about the world, for example, about stock-market fluctuations, real-estate trends, or an outbreak of the flu.

    17It is no surprise that Google everywhere cultivates a friendly image, a culture of selflessness and inclusion: the reliability of its data, and of its profits, depends on a mass of users whose browsing and location it can track. And this is why certain critics believe that Google has imposed a kind of surveillance or slavery on its users: it exploits their labor (largely unbeknownst to them) without paying them (besides offering users certain products free of charge).6

    The in situ encyclopedia and museum

    18Wikipedia offers a different model. Founded in 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger and owned by a non-profit foundation, it is currently the largest online encyclopedia as well as the largest encyclopedia in the world in history, with 37 million articles in 300 languages, among which 5.3 million in English and 1.7 million in French, 500 million distinct visitors per month, and 18 billion visits since its inception, which makes it one of the most visited websites in the world.7

    19As we know, Wikipedia is based on five main principles - five pillars - that would have delighted Diderot and d’Alembert: encyclopedism, neutrality, freedom of content, civility, and flexibility of rules. But most valuably, it often involves free and open participation (everyone can contribute), a non-hierarchical and decentralized structure (all contributors are equal, at least a priori), continual transformation (content and rules are developed in real time), common and above all public ownership (the results belong to everyone, in other words, to no one in particular), as well as collective management and review (legitimacy is the product of deliberation and consensus). This way of doing things may seem to challenge the usual forms of scientific legitimacy, except that the opposite is the case. Although Wikipedia depends less on the traditional authorities of legitimation, on the institutions traditionally responsible for education, research, and distribution, it nonetheless remains faithful to their protocols: it centralizes deliberation and consensus. According to a 2005 study in the scientific journal Nature, Wikipedia’s reliability comes close to that of the Encyclopædia Britannica (four errors per entry instead of three).8

    20On many Wikipedia pages, place as much as the date provides relevant information: geographical coordinates and a map often appear at the top of entries. Besides that, geolocation has long remained marginal and Wikipedia has continued as an online encyclopedia even after the advent of mobile technology. Furthermore, Wikipedia’s first migrations to mobile platforms were designed by other companies. In 2004, a mobile app, Wapedia, was launched that made all entries available in a simplified form on users’ telephones but without geolocation. Similarly, in 2005, Opera Mini, a browser for mobile platforms, set Google and Wikipedia as its primary default search engines, but even then the information wasn’t localized.

    21Starting in 2008, however, several mobile apps came out that not only incorporated Wikipedia’s database but also geolocated its entries, often in augmented reality (through the use of a phone’s camera and screen), such as NearestWiki (2008) and World Explorer (2010). At the same time, certain augmented- reality browsers, such as Wikitude (2008), Layar (2009), Junaio (2009), and Tagwhat (2010), which registered all sorts of information on maps and in physical space, especially information of use to business, also began providing access to Wikipedia’s articles.

    22In 2012, the encyclopedia itself launched its own application, Wikipedia Mobile, which allowed users to consult and modify encyclopedia articles at any time and any place. With this program, users access data through traditional keyword, category, or theme searches as well as by clicking on “Today” (based on the date articles were created), “Random article,” or, what interests us here, “Nearby” (based on the user’s location). This last function presents a list of articles related to users’ geolocation within a range of roughly two miles, providing a photo, the distance, and a compass arrow that tells users the direction to the reference point in real time.

    Wikipedia Mobile, Nearby

    Image

    Wikipedia. Screenshot.

    23But with the development of augmented reality, new mobile applications have quickly appeared that locate bidimensional, fixed or animated, graphic, photographic, or videographic images rather than text. And often, the visual information isn’t simply located according to latitude, longitude, and altitude, it is also positioned, in other words, precisely oriented, angled, and sized such that, from the user’s point of view, image and place are perfectly aligned and in perspective. The Streetmuseum application (2010), launched by the Museum of London upon the opening of its new galleries of modern London, is exemplary in that it overlays images from the museum’s collection on real locations. Walking around the actual city, users can thus discover in situ certain views of historical London as well as access information in text form. Certain applications insert film archives, film-library collections, such as Augmented Reality Cinema (London, 2011), Cinemacity (Paris, 2013), and Time Traveller (Berlin, 2014).

    Streetmuseum, Covent Garden street scene c. 1930 + 2014

    Image

    Museum of London Blog, February 28, 2014).

    4 Gentlemen, Goddess of Democracy, public art in geolocated augmented reality, Tiananmen Square, Beijing, 2011

    Image

    Diary in Exile, 4 Gentlemen Blog, January 21, 2011).

    24Other mobile applications locate not only text and images but also three-dimensional objects constructed with 3D-modeling algorithms. An increasing number of programs now allow people to use augmented reality to restore an interior, a building, or a ruin by adding a fragment, a built component, a set decor, or a complete virtual environment to it, such as UAR (Rotterdam, 2012), Architip (Israel, 2013), and ARmedia (Rome, 2013). Some applications even insert filmed or entirely modeled, animated and sometimes interactive, people, who recall actors from the past and render scenes from historical events or everyday life. In this case, virtual things or people are also located and positioned so that image and place are perfectly aligned from every perspective, such as with Past View (Seville, 2013), reVistor (Washington- on-the-Brazos, Texas, 2013), and Explore Westminster Hall (London, 2014). The user is thus free to move around an object or a virtual person or within a building. Most of these applications are built by or for institutions - museums, historical sites, etc. But they are sometimes the creation of artists, who turn to mobile augmented reality in order to infiltrate public space otherwise controlled by political and economic powers, introducing data, text, and images that reveal the hidden side of buildings, institutions, or cities: counter-monuments and counter-guided tours, virtual but in situ, that commemorate events that have been erased from collective memory or official history and that tell alternative narratives, like Tiananmen SquARed (4 Gentlemen, Beijing, 2011), AR Occupy Wall Street (Mark Skwarek, New York, 2011), Border Memorial: Frontera de los Muertos (John Craig Freeman, Texas, 2012), and Returning the Stolen Parthenon Elgin Marbles to Greece (Mark Skwarek, London, 2012).

    25These practices obviously revive traditional forms of the localization of knowledge. Despite its gradual dematerialization and delocalization, knowledge has never completely deserted place. Certain stone inscriptions or engravings, nameplates in museums, commemorative plaques, frescoes, and monuments are all in situ forms of memory, relocated to the very sites to which they refer. The guided tour is also a localized memory, whether it is transmitted by a human guide (oral), a travel guide (book), or audio guide. Lastly, certain architectural reconstructions are also localized, as are human reconstructions of certain historical events or scenes from daily life, familiar to fans of historical reenactments and LARPs, live-action role- playing games.

    The epistemological functions of localization

    26This massive relocation of data serves above all a commercial purpose: first, to users, it offers products that match their location and browsing and location history; then, to businesses, the data provides valuable information about the most recent trends and their target audience in real time and in situ, etc. But the relocation of data and especially of historical data also has epistemological effects.

    27In Time and Narrative, after having long reflected on the mediating role of narrative, of “emplotment,” in the synthesis of the experience of time and in the association of subjective experience and objective representations,9 Paul Ricœur identifies another mediation, a “third time” - historical time - and three “procedures of connection,” three “mediations,” three “operators,” that historiography brings into play in order to reconfigure time: the succession of generations; archives, documents, and traces; and the calendar.10 It is possible to think of localization as a temporal operator in the manner of the trace. Indeed, from this perspective, place may very well be one of the forms of the trace in the same way as the fragment (synecdoche) or imprint (metonymy). Its logic is that of the index (in the Peircian sense of the term), which refers in virtue of physical contiguity, or, more precisely, that of the motivated index, which refers in virtue of a causal relation (if we accept Umberto Eco’s distinction) or in virtue of spatial proximity or temporal distance. Place is, like the work of art and the photograph, a temporal intersection between the present and the past. It represents an intensified form of Barthes’s that-has-been, a kind of that-has-been-here. And it is undoubtedly for this reason that it plays such an important role in the transmission of memory.

    28That being said, localized knowledge can rarely be reduced to a single type of sign. The monument, which may very well be the model for all in situ memory, is always intermedial. In general, it brings together an image (icon) - a relief or sculpture - that depicts the people or events commemorated; a text (symbol) - an epigraph - that names, dates, and describes; a base (index) that at once separates and displays, isolates and connects, image and place as both a limit and intersection; a place (motivated index), which is usually public, often historical (where the events themselves occurred), and/or political (near places of power). Monuments obviously have these different types of signs in varying proportions.

    29Today, localized memory, especially through the use of augmented reality, also privileges the image and the index in varying proportions. Sometimes, the index is central and the image merely a complement, following the logic of “restoration.” Sometimes, the index is only a mimetic trigger11 or a set decor, simply a starting point or background, whereas the image is omnipresent, following the logic of “reconstruction.” And the experience isn’t exactly the same. It isn’t a matter of communicating historical information through language, on the model of annotation, or of making the presence of the past felt through the index. It is above all a matter of producing an illusion through the image, of producing perceptual, narrative and interactive, profound and persistent, immersion, whose aim is the resurrection of the past.12 Such immersion may very well be the future of a certain kind of historiography, in museums, on historical sites, or elsewhere, as if the cinema, video games, and virtual reality have become hegemonic cultural forms, the model for all experience. The geolocation of data, when it is limited in nature and prioritizes the logic of the index, might thus encourage the rediscovery of certain places and promote a reactivation of the past. But when it is expansive and favors the logic of the image, it can also have the opposite effect: the concealment of place and the virtualization of the present.

    30Relocalization isn’t in itself political. In a globalized world that ubiquitously imposes the free movement of goods and data for primarily economic ends, localism may seem a viable means of resistance, just as site-specificity in contemporary art once was.13 But localism isn’t always progressive, especially when it seems to discourage any kind of global (and yet decisive) political action and to motivate a certain isolationist communitarianism. But localism nonetheless has epistemological virtues. As Frances Yates showed in her well-known book The Art of Memory, materiality, spatialization, and localization play a crucial role in memory and remembering.14

    Notes de bas de page

    1 For the foregoing, see especially: Ann Burdick, Johanna Drucker, Peter Lunenfeld, Todd Presner, and Jeffrey Schnapp, Digital Humanities (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2012); Christian Jacob, Qu’est-ce qu’un lieu de savoir? (Marseille: Open Edition Press, 2014).

    2 On the geographical relationship between the web and the city, see in particular: Eric Gordon and Adriana de Souza e Silva, Net Locality: Why Location Matters in a Networked World (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011); Gerard Goggin and Rowan Wilken, eds., Locative Media (New York: Routledge, 2015; Adriana de Souza e Silva and Mimi Sheller, eds., Mobility and Locative Media: Mobile Communication in Hybrid Spaces (New York: Routledge, 2015).

    3 On John Hanke, see, for example: Joe Shute and Tom Ough, “Meet John Hanke, the eccentric, board game-loving visionary who runs the mysterious firm behind Pokémon Go,” The Telegraph, July 24, 2016: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/meet-john-hanke-the-eccentric-board-game-loving-visionary-who-ru/.

    4 Evan Ratliff, “Google Maps is Changing the Way We See the World,” Wired, June 26, 2007: https://www.wired.com/2007/06/ff-maps/.

    5 Relative to all this, see, for example: Eric Rosenberg, “The Business of Google,” Investopedia, August 5, 2016: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/020515/business-google.asp.

    6 On Google, see in particular: Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction (London: Sage, 2014); Dominique Cardon, À quoi rêvent les algorithmes? Nos vies à l’heure des big data (Paris: Seuil, 2015).

    7 According to its Alexa ranking, Wikipedia is the sixth most visited site in the world. See: http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/Wikipedia.org.

    8 Jim Giles, “Internet Encyclopaedias go Head to Head,” Nature 438: 15 (December 2005): 900-901: https://www.nature.com/articles/438900a.

    9 Paul Ricœur, Time and Narrative, vol. 1, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984), ix.

    10 Paul Ricœur, Time and Narrative, vol. 3, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), 109-123. Also see: Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004).

    11 On this notion, see Jean-Marie Schaeffer, Why Fiction? trans. Dorrit Cohn (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010).

    12 On immersion, see Gordon Calleja, In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2011).

    13 On political and ecological localism, see, for example: Raymond De Young and Thomas Princen, eds., The Localization Reader: Adapting to the Coming Downshift (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2012). On site- specificity in contemporary art, see especially: Milwon Kwon, One Place after Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2002).

    14 Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory. Selected Works, vol. 3 (London and New York: Routledge, 1999).

    Auteur

    • Olivier Asselin

      Professor in the Department of Art History and Film Studies at the Université de Montreal where he teaches contemporary art, expanded cinema, and media arts. He is the coeditor of Precarious Visualities: New Perspectives on Identification in Contemporary Art and Visual Culture (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008), L’Ère électrique / The Electric Age (University of Ottawa, 2011), Menlo Park. Trois machines uchroniques (Université de Laval, 2014), Espaces de savoir (Université de Laval, 2016), and has contributed to the edited volumes Cartographies of Place: Ways of Representing the Urban (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2013) and 3D Cinema and Beyond (Intellect Ltd., The University of Chicago Press, 2013). He is currently exploring the artistic uses of mobile platforms and working on a life-size video game in augmented reality. He has also directed several feature-length fiction films.

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    Architectures of memory

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    Jean-Marie Dallet et Bertrand Gervais (dir.) Armelle Chrétien et Joshua David Jordan (trad.)

    2022

    Angles morts du numérique ubiquitaire

    Angles morts du numérique ubiquitaire

    Glossaire critique et amoureux

    Yves Citton, Marie Lechner et Anthony Masure (dir.)

    2023

    Imaginaires technologiques

    Imaginaires technologiques

    François-David Sebbah et Alberto Romele (dir.)

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    La mémoire géolocalisée

    Olivier Asselin

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    La mémoire géolocalisée

    Olivier Asselin

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    1 For the foregoing, see especially: Ann Burdick, Johanna Drucker, Peter Lunenfeld, Todd Presner, and Jeffrey Schnapp, Digital Humanities (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2012); Christian Jacob, Qu’est-ce qu’un lieu de savoir? (Marseille: Open Edition Press, 2014).

    2 On the geographical relationship between the web and the city, see in particular: Eric Gordon and Adriana de Souza e Silva, Net Locality: Why Location Matters in a Networked World (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011); Gerard Goggin and Rowan Wilken, eds., Locative Media (New York: Routledge, 2015; Adriana de Souza e Silva and Mimi Sheller, eds., Mobility and Locative Media: Mobile Communication in Hybrid Spaces (New York: Routledge, 2015).

    3 On John Hanke, see, for example: Joe Shute and Tom Ough, “Meet John Hanke, the eccentric, board game-loving visionary who runs the mysterious firm behind Pokémon Go,” The Telegraph, July 24, 2016: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/meet-john-hanke-the-eccentric-board-game-loving-visionary-who-ru/.

    4 Evan Ratliff, “Google Maps is Changing the Way We See the World,” Wired, June 26, 2007: https://www.wired.com/2007/06/ff-maps/.

    5 Relative to all this, see, for example: Eric Rosenberg, “The Business of Google,” Investopedia, August 5, 2016: http://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/020515/business-google.asp.

    6 On Google, see in particular: Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction (London: Sage, 2014); Dominique Cardon, À quoi rêvent les algorithmes? Nos vies à l’heure des big data (Paris: Seuil, 2015).

    7 According to its Alexa ranking, Wikipedia is the sixth most visited site in the world. See: http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/Wikipedia.org.

    8 Jim Giles, “Internet Encyclopaedias go Head to Head,” Nature 438: 15 (December 2005): 900-901: https://www.nature.com/articles/438900a.

    9 Paul Ricœur, Time and Narrative, vol. 1, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984), ix.

    10 Paul Ricœur, Time and Narrative, vol. 3, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), 109-123. Also see: Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004).

    11 On this notion, see Jean-Marie Schaeffer, Why Fiction? trans. Dorrit Cohn (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010).

    12 On immersion, see Gordon Calleja, In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2011).

    13 On political and ecological localism, see, for example: Raymond De Young and Thomas Princen, eds., The Localization Reader: Adapting to the Coming Downshift (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2012). On site- specificity in contemporary art, see especially: Milwon Kwon, One Place after Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2002).

    14 Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory. Selected Works, vol. 3 (London and New York: Routledge, 1999).

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    Asselin, O. (2022). Geolocated Memory. In J.-M. Dallet & B. Gervais (éds.), Architectures of memory (1‑). Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre. https://doi.org/10.4000/11tpq
    Asselin, Olivier. « Geolocated Memory ». In Architectures of Memory, édité par Jean-Marie Dallet et Bertrand Gervais. Nanterre: Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4000/11tpq.
    Asselin, Olivier. « Geolocated Memory ». Architectures of Memory, édité par Jean-Marie Dallet et Bertrand Gervais, Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4000/11tpq.

    Référence numérique du livre

    Format

    Dallet, J.-M., & Gervais, B. (éds.). (2022). Architectures of memory (A. Chrétien & J. D. Jordan, Trad.; 1‑). Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre. https://doi.org/10.4000/11tv3
    Dallet, Jean-Marie, et Bertrand Gervais, éd. Architectures of Memory. Traduit par Armelle Chrétien et Joshua David Jordan. Nanterre: Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4000/11tv3.
    Dallet, Jean-Marie, et Bertrand Gervais, éditeurs. Architectures of Memory. Traduit par Armelle Chrétien et Joshua David Jordan, Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4000/11tv3.
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