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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral Remploi de fours à usage funéraire : simple réutilisation ou métaphore du cycle de la vie ? – version abrégée Introduction 1. Framing the scenario: Early Neolithic burials in the Italian peninsula 2. Burials inside ovens: the case of Portonovo 4. Conclusion Bibliographie Auteur

    La terre crue en contexte funéraire

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    Table des matières

    Burials in ovens: simple re-use or a metaphor for life cycles?

    Remploi de fours à usage funéraire : simple réutilisation ou métaphore du cycle de la vie ?

    Cecilia Conati Barbaro

    p. 79-94

    Résumés

    The re-use of domestic structures for burials represents a widespread phenomenon across the Neolithic world. Ovens, among other things, were used for funerary purposes, emphasising their symbolic meaning beyond their utilitarian function. Burials inside ovens are likely to suggest a close relationship between life, death and the regenerative power of fire rather than a simple re-use of abandoned domestic features.
    This issue will be tackled using the records of the Early Neolithic site of Portonovo in Italy, where several individuals were buried in two subterranean ovens. The data recovered from the excavations carried out at Portonovo will be compared to those from other European sites in which ovens were used as burial places. The aim is to understand whether this practice is an opportunistic re-use of a space as a burial chamber or has a symbolic meaning shared by the group.

    Le réemploi des structures domestiques à des fins funéraires est une pratique commune dans le monde néolithique. Parmi d’autres, les fours ont été utilisés dans les pratiques funéraires, ce qui suggère une signification symbolique, au-delà de leur fonction utilitaire.
    Les sépultures dans les fours pourraient représenter le lien étroit entre la vie, la mort et le pouvoir régénérateur du feu plutôt qu’une simple réutilisation de structures domestiques abandonnées.
    Ce sujet sera abordé à travers la documentation du site du Néolithique ancien de Portonovo (Italie) dans lequel des individus ont été déposés à l’intérieur de deux fours souterrains.
    Les données issues des recherches sur Portonovo seront comparées avec celles d’autres sites européens où des fours ont été utilisés comme tombes pour se demander s’il s’agit d’un choix opportuniste pour réutiliser un espace déjà prêt à servir de chambre funéraire ou bien d’un choix porteur d’une signification symbolique partagée par l’ensemble de la communauté.

    Entrées d’index

    Mots-clés : fours, Néolithique, tombes, pratiques funéraires, Italie, traitement des aliments, agriculture, activités communautaires

    Keywords : ovens, Neolithic, tombs, burial practices, Italian peninsula, food processing, agriculture, communal activities

    Note de l’éditeur

    English version of the texts by the author, reviewed by Karoline Mazurié de Keroualin (LINARKEO).

    Texte intégral Remploi de fours à usage funéraire : simple réutilisation ou métaphore du cycle de la vie ? – version abrégée 1. Introduction : les sépultures du Néolithique ancien en Italie 2. Sépultures dans des fours : le cas de Portonovo (Marche) 2.1. Usage principal des fours 2.2. Les fours en tant que chambres funéraires Conclusions Introduction 1. Framing the scenario: Early Neolithic burials in the Italian peninsula 2. Burials inside ovens: the case of Portonovo 2.1. The primary use of the ovens 2.2. Ovens re-used as burial chambers 3. Places of life, places of death. Other examples of interconnection between fire structures and burials 4. Conclusion Bibliographie Auteur

    Texte intégral

    Remploi de fours à usage funéraire : simple réutilisation ou métaphore du cycle de la vie ? – version abrégée

    1. Introduction : les sépultures du Néolithique ancien en Italie

    1Les débuts du Néolithique en Italie, s’étendant de la fin du 7e au milieu du 6e millénaire avant notre ère, se caractérisent par une rareté marquée de registres funéraires. Les preuves limitées disponibles indiquent un schéma récurrent d’inhumations individuelles sans mobilier d’accompagnement, principalement situées à l’intérieur des établissements ou dans les grottes. Des pratiques similaires sont observables dans de nombreuses régions du sud-est de l’Europe.

    2Les sépultures au sein des villages apparaissent un peu plus tardivement à la fin du premier Néolithique. Elles ont été principalement réalisées dans des structures domestiques sous le sol des maisons, puis dans les silos, les fosses, les fours ou les fossés (Conati Barbaro 2007-2008 ; Tiné, Pessina 2022 ; Grifoni Cremonesi 2002 ; 2006).

    3À partir du début du 5e millénaire avant notre ère, un changement dans les pratiques funéraires émerge, perceptible dans les conceptions architecturales des sites funéraires et dans l’organisation des zones de sépulture, entraînant la création de véritables cimetières.

    2. Sépultures dans des fours : le cas de Portonovo (Marche)

    4La pratique des sépultures dans des fours est relativement répandue dans des régions telles que les Balkans, la Grèce et l’Anatolie. Elle est souvent associée à des inhumations d’enfants. Par exemple, le site néolithique ancien d’Alsónyék-Bátaszék (Hongrie) a livré quelques tombes des femmes et d’enfants situées à l’intérieur de fours souterrains en dehors de l’établissement (Bánffy et al. 2010 ; 2017). En Anatolie et en Grèce, ce sont principalement les enfants qui sont inhumés à l’intérieur de fours à dôme, localisés soit à l’intérieur, soit à proximité des habitations dans les villages.

    5Cette pratique, cependant, était jusqu’alors inconnue dans la péninsule italienne. Par conséquent, le site de Portonovo représente un cas d’étude unique pour l’instant et même très particulier en général.

    6Le site de Portonovo se trouve le long du flanc du promontoire du Conero dans la région des Marches, près de la côte adriatique (cf. fig. 1) (Conati Barbaro 2013 ; 2019b). Vingt-trois fours souterrains ont été découverts sur une superficie de fouille d’environ 600 mètres carrés.

    7Les méthodes de construction de ces fours ont été précisemment étudiées grâce à la découverte de sept spécimens intacts (cf. fig. 2). Les fours ont été construits en créant d’abord une fosse, suivie de l’excavation d’une cavité avec une base circulaire et un fond plat, ainsi qu’une ouverture centrée frontale qui relie la cavité à la fosse d’accès. La voûte intérieure procède d’une structure sous-cavée basse et aplatie , ne dépassant pas une hauteur de 0,50 m. Le diamètre interne de ces fours varie entre 1,50 et 2 m (cf. fig. 3, 4 et 8).

    8Les données chronologiques indiquent que les 23 fours ont été construits à des phases différentes et n’étaient pas tous utilisés concommitement.

    9La large période chronologique attestée dans le site, couvre près d’un millénaire (tabl. 1). Elle souligne l’utilisation continue de la zone pour des activités associées à la cuission et au feu. La date la plus ancienne remonte au début du 6e millénaire avant notre ère. Une concentration de dates est par ailleurs présente dans la première moitié du 6e millénaire avant notre ère. À partir de 5400 cal. BC environ, se constate la réutilisation de quelques fours à des fins funéraires, après l’arrêt de leur fonction primaire.

    2.1. Usage principal des fours

    10L’opération et la fonction initiale des fours de Portonovo ont été étudiées en utilisant une approche interdisciplinaire exploitant le potentiel informatif de la structure des fours et des matériaux contenus à la fois dans les fours et leurs avant-fosses.

    11La présence de plusieurs caryopses de céreales carbonisés (Hordeum vulgare L. et Triticum dicoccum Schübl.) dans cinq fours, démontre l’utilisation de ces structures pour le traitement des aliments. La présence de glumes à la surface des caryopses intactes, précise que les fours ont servi pour la torréfaction et/ou le séchage des céréales avant leur stockage ou leur consommation (Conati Barbaro, Celant 2019).

    12Des méthodes archéométriques et un protocole expérimental ont été utilisés pour étudier les aspects techniques des opérations de chauffe. Les analyses par PXRD d’échantillons de sédiments durcis prélevés sur les sols, les parois et les voûtes de quatre fours ont indiqué une température maximale inférieure à 500°C (Muntoni, Ruggiero 2013 ; La Marca et al. 2017). De facto, ces données ont exclu leur utilisation pour la cuisson de la poterie, car les analyses des fragments de céramique provenant de différentes unités stratigraphiques ont révélé des températures comprises, elles, entre 700°C et 950°C. Néanmoins, les mesures menées dans un four expérimental lors de plusieurs sessions de cuisson indiquent que des températures bien supérieures à 600°C pourraient être facilement atteintes avec ce type de four (Conati Barbaro et al. 2021).

    2.2. Les fours en tant que chambres funéraires

    13La découverte de trois squelettes, à l’intérieur de deux fours, constitue une preuve convaincante de leur transformation en tombeaux. Dans le cas du four 1, les parois ne sont préservées que sur quelques centimètres. À l’intérieur, dans son quart nord-est, deux individus ont été découverts. Ils reposaient sur une couche d’abandon contenant des tessons et des artefacts lithiques. L’individu T1 est un homme âgé entre 30 et 35 ans, avec des os partiellement connectés, tandis que le second sujet (T2) est un adulte de sexe indéterminé de la même tranche d’âge (Catalano, Di Giannantonio 2013) (cf. fig. 3).

    14Le positionnement des individus sur une couche d’abandon renvoie à un chagement de fonction du four, mais préservant son intégrité structurelle. De plus, la couche de fragments de sédiment durcis par le feu recouvrant les restes humaines suggère que l’effondrement des parois du four s’est produit après son utilisation en tant que chambre funéraire.

    15La datation au radiocarbone d’un os humain place l’individue T1 entre 5207 et 4843 cal. BC 2σ (cf. tabl. 1), il s’agit de la date la plus récente de la séquence chronologique établie à Portonovo.

    16Le four 5 contenait les restes partiellement conservés d’un homme adulte âgé de plus de 55 ans, disposés le long de la paroi orientale de la structure (Catalano, Di Giannantonio 2013). Ce contexte a livré deux dates 14C. L’une, réalisée sur charbon de bois provenant de la base du remplissage recouvrant le sol de fonctionnement du four, se place entre 5602 et 5358 cal. BC et l’autre, obtenue à partir d’un os humain, est légèrement plus récente, se plaçant entre 5477 et 5317 cal. BC (cf. fig. 3).

    17Le court intervalle entre la phase finale présumée d’utilisation du four 5 et le dépôt du sujet masculin indique que le four a été réutilisé comme tombe après seulement une brève période d’abandon. Cependant, il est plausible, au regard des autres dates, que seule la structure individuelle ait été défonctionnalisée, alors que la zone productive était encore en usage (domestique ou artisanale). Ainsi, l’inhumation T3 est contemporaine du four 13 (5474 - 5222 cal. BC à 2σ) et du four 16, qui présente la datation archéomagnétique de 5472 - 5395 cal BC, correspondant à la dernière phase de combustion. On remarque, de plus, que les fours 13 et 16 sont très proches de ceux acceuillant les sépultures.

    Conclusions

    18Plusieurs indices suggèrent que les fours de Portonovo n’ont pas été réutilisés de manière opportuniste et/ou occasionnelle comme tombes. En effet, l’utilisation de deux structures distinctes à différents moments pour le même objectif suggère/évoque une récurrence délibérée, excluant un événement isolé. De plus, pendant l’intervalle entre les enterrements des individus T1 et T3, les fours 13 et 16, proches des deux tombes, sont restés opérationnels pour le traitement des céréales et d’autres aliments. Cela atteste l’importance du site en tant que centre d’activités communautaires spécialisées. Ainsi, la portée symbolique de l’inhumation de quelques membres de la communauté probablement sélectionnés à l’intérieur de ces fours est explicite.

    19Enfin, l’intégration des fours dans les rituels funéraires suggère un lien profond entre la vie, la mort et la notion de renouveau, au travers par le pouvoir transformateur du feu.

    ⁂

    Introduction

    20The Neolithic period stands out by virtue of the widespread use of raw earth as a building material as shown by a variety of domestic features such as houses, ovens, hearths, hearth plates and objects used in both daily life and for ceremonial practices. For this reason, it has also been named the ‘Age of Clay’ (Stevanović 1997, p. 343). Clay, i.e. raw earth, was a main material used for these constructions, which underwent various transformations throughout its application — some of these were intended while others occurred incidentally, such as exposure to natural fire or accidental events. This intricate process involves a careful selection of raw materials, including water, temper, wood, and plants, underscoring a profound knowledge of the surrounding natural environment and the resources available. This involves not only technical skills but also well-established design patterns that can be adapted to suit specific local conditions and cultural traditions.

    21By contrast to other Mediterranean regions and Southwest Asia, archaeological records in the Italian peninsula do not testify to a widespread use of raw earth during the Neolithic period, particularly in relation to funerary practices. This dearth of information may be due to several factors. First, poor preservation may be a result of syn-depositional and post-depositional processes. Second, the lack of data may be a consequence of the rather late focus of archaeological research on this category of materials.

    22This paper presents a compelling case study demonstrating the use of clay-rich soils to create structures primarily designed for domestic activities involving fire, which were subsequently re-used as tombs. By contrast to traditional features built from raw earth, these were embedded in the ground, taking advantage of an intrinsic property to trap heat.

    1. Framing the scenario: Early Neolithic burials in the Italian peninsula

    23The earliest stages of the Neolithic period in the Italian peninsula, from the late 7th to the mid- 6th millennium BCE, are characterised by a notable scarcity of funerary records. The limited evidence available points to a recurring pattern of single burials without grave goods, mainly located within settlements or inside caves (Conati Barbaro 2007-2008). This trend extends beyond the Italian peninsula, as similar practices could be observed in many regions of Southeast Europe (Borić 2015).

    24Burials established within settlements appear some time later towards the end of the Early Neolithic. Most of these burials were placed in domestic features, for example beneath house floors, in storage pits, in pits, inside ovens, or in ditches (Tiné, Pessina 2022; Grifoni Cremonesi 2002; 2006). However, the rather small number of burials does not correspond to the significant population growth recorded for the Early Neolithic period (Palmisano et al. 2021), suggesting the existence of distinct practices for the treatment of the deceased. It may therefore be assumed that the few burials discovered within settlements are not representative of a common practice involving all members of the community. This raises the question of whether the decision to re-use abandoned domestic structures can be seen as nonconformance with established standards or whether this practice had a specific symbolic value. Furthermore, was the re-use of abandoned structures a purely pragmatic action or was it driven by deeper cultural or ritual meanings?

    25Between the late 6th and early 5th millennia BCE a gradual change emerged in funerary practices, characterised by a continuous transition as regards both the architectural layout of burial grounds and the organisation of burial spaces, ultimately leading to the establishment of recognisable cemeteries (Conati Barbaro 2007-2008; Dolfini 2015; 2020). This shift might indicate an increasing importance of family lineages (Chapman 1983), or the emergence of a legitimisation process associated with the control of territories or resources (Robb 2007). Such changes are mirrored by an intentional clustering of graves within designated areas specifically reserved for commemorating ancestors, thereby reinforcing and affirming a cohesive collective identity.

    2. Burials inside ovens: the case of Portonovo

    26Ovens are among the domestic features re-used for funerary practices. Although the practice of oven burials is relatively widespread in specific regions such as the Balkans, Greece and Anatolia, where it was frequently associated with the burial of children, there is, apart from Portonovo, no evidence suggesting the presence of this type of burial in the Italian peninsula or the broader central Mediterranean context. Consequently, the case study under discussion is a unique and singular occurrence.

    27The archaeological site of Portonovo is located on the Conero promontory in the Marche region along the Adriatic coast, on a hillside that does not directly face the sea, positioned at an elevation of approximately 120 m above sea level (Conati Barbaro 2013; 2019a) (fig. 1).

    1. Location of the archaeological site of Portonovo (Marche, Italy).

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    1. Emplacement du site archéologique de Portonovo (Marches, Italie) (© Projet Portonovo).

    28In this area, twenty-three subterranean ovens were unearthed across an investigated surface encompassing about 600 square meters. Recent magnetic surveys carried out in the unexcavated part of the site identified additional structures (De Neef, pers. comm.). The absence of settlement features in close proximity to the ovens, as well as the high density of structures of similar size and construction technique, have led to the hypothesis that this area might have been primarily dedicated to food preparation and food processing (fig. 2).

    2. Plan of the site indicating the locations of the burials.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    2. Plan du site avec la localisation des sépultures (© Projet Portonovo).

    29The identification of the construction techniques used for these ovens was made possible thanks to the discovery of seven intact specimens located in the lower part of the hill slope. They were covered by a thicker layer of soil and thus were less impacted by natural erosion and agricultural activities.

    30At the Portonovo site the ovens were originally dug into a colluvial deposit along the hill slope. Construction of the oven started with the digging of a pit which was then used to create a vertical wall in the colluvial deposit. From here a cavity was excavated that had a circular base and a flattened vault with a maximum height of 50 cm (fig. 3). The internal diameter of these ovens typically ranges from 1.50 to 2 m (fig. 4). To make the surface more uniform, the floors were smoothed, most likely with water. Lastly, the fire and repeated use consolidated the ovens.

    31Chronological data obtained from radiocarbon dating and archaeomagnetic analyses show that the 23 ovens were built at different times and were not all in use at the same time (table 1). There are only two overlapping structures, indicating that the location of the previously excavated ovens was still well known when a new one was built. The extensive chronological range, spanning nearly one millennium, highlights strong continuity as regards the use of this area for activities associated with these specific pyrotechnological structures. As a matter of fact, the earliest dating indicates the beginning of the 6th millennium BCE and makes Portonovo the earliest Neolithic site of the central Adriatic region.

    32The dating of most of these ovens points to the first half of the 6th millennium BCE. There is evidence as early as 5400 BCE, of the re-use of a few ovens for funerary purposes, most likely after their primary function had been abandoned.

    3. Ovens 14, 15 and16: examples of intact examples.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    3. Fours 14, 15 et16 : une sélection d’exemples intacts (© Projet Portonovo).

    4. Oven 23 (above); section of oven 23 and its access pit (below).

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    4. Four 23 ( vue zénithale) et section du four 23 et de sa fosse d’accès (ci-dessous) (© Projet Portonovo).

    Table 1. Radiocarbon and archaeomagnetic dates of the Portonovo site.

    FEATURECod. Lab.BPBCE Cal 2σSample
    Oven 22LTL15358A6916 ± 455896-5713charcoal Cornus sp.
    Pit 1186 - baseLTL15323A6734 ± 455722-5564charcoal Buxus sempervirens
    Oven 23LTL15990A6673 ± 455668-5513charcoal Buxus sempervirens
    Oven 19LTL15357A6647 ± 455638-5491charcoal Phillyrea/Rhamnus
    Oven 14LTL12777A6555± 455617-5469cariopsis Hordeum vulgare
    Oven 5LTL5192A6500±505602-5358charcoal Quercus sp. gr. evergreen
    Pit 1229 baseLTL15991A6500±455547-5366charcoal Quercus sp. gr. evergreen
    Oven 17  5522-5359Archeomagnetism
    Oven 14  5479-5403Archeomagnetism
    Oven 5 – T 3LTL5191A6418±505477-5317Human bone
    Oven 13 – US 1144LTL15989A6378±455475-5232Carporest Rosaceae Sorbus sp.
    Oven 16  5472-5395Archeomagnetism
    Oven 1 – T 1LTL18596A6076 ± 455207-4843Human bone

    Radiocarbon dates are calibrated with OxCal v.4.3.2 Bronk Ramsey 2009a; atmospheric data Reimer et al. 2013.
    Tabl. 1. Dates au radiocarbone et archéomagnétiques du site de Portonovo (les dates radiocarbone sont calibrées avec OxCal v.4.3.2 Bronk Ramsey 2009a; atmospheric data Reimer et al. 2013).

    2.1. The primary use of the ovens

    33The use and function of the ovens discovered at the Portonovo site were investigated using an interdisciplinary approach, using the information provided by the materials taken from the fillings of the ovens and from the pits that were located in front of them.

    34Large pyrotechnological structures such as the ovens uncovered at Portonovo require an extended heating and drying phase, particularly because they are buried, and the moisture content of the ground can be significant. The same caution was exercised by rural communities in the Italian peninsula when using large communal bread ovens built with bricks or stones. Indeed, these ovens had to be lit well in advance to reach the optimum temperature and had to remain in operation for a couple of days, especially when they had not been used for some time. Tests performed on an experimental replica showed that it was necessary to start heating the oven at least one day before its use and to leave the embers glowing overnight (Conati Barbaro et al. 2021) (fig. 5).

    5. The experimental replica of an oven during a firing session.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    5. Réplique expérimentale d’un four lors d’une séance de cuisson (© Projet Portonovo).

    35Furthermore, archaeobotanical data have provided useful information for understanding the selection of the most appropriate fuel, which is closely related to the efficient functioning and intended purpose of the ovens. The charcoal found inside the ovens primarily consists of holm oak (Quercus ilex), with a smaller amount of hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia). These woods are hard and compact, with a high calorific value that produces long-lasting heat while burning slowly. Therefore, these species were most likely carefully selected from the various plant species characteristic of the flora of Monte Conero for their favourable energetic characteristics.

    36The presence of several charred caryopses of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schübl.) found in five different structures provides further evidence for the use of the ovens for food processing (Conati Barbaro, Celant 2021). These grains show clear signs of direct fire exposure despite the fact that they were highly fragmented and dehydrated. The presence of glumes on the surface of intact caryopses indicates that the ovens were used to roast and/or dry cereals prior to storage or consumption. According to experimental data (Meurers-Balke, Lüning 1992; Nesbitt, Samuel 1996) temperatures of up to 100°C are sufficient for drying, whereas roasting requires temperatures higher than 150°C.

    37As regards the cooking or processing of meat and fish, only a small number of animal bones were found inside the ovens. In fact most of the faunal remains originate from the pits in front of the ovens, which, however, represent episodes of accumulation linked to activities that took place in close proximity to the pits, though not necessarily within these or the ovens themselves. Consequently, although it is highly probable that these structures were also used for this purpose, a definitive assertion cannot be made.

    38The technical aspects related to the use of the ovens discovered at Portonovo were also investigated using archaeometric methods and an experimental protocol. PXRD (Powder x-ray Diffraction) analyses of hardened sediment samples taken from the floors, walls and vaults of four structures show that the maximum temperature reached was less than 500°C (Muntoni, Ruggiero 2013; La Marca et al. 2017). These data had initially ruled out their use for firing pottery, as analyses of ceramic fragments from various stratigraphic units indicate temperatures ranging from 700°C to 950°C. Nevertheless, measurements taken in an experimental replica of an oven during several firing sessions show that temperatures well beyond 600°C could have been easily reached (Conati Barbaro et al. 2021).

    39The reconsideration of the use of certain ovens for firing or heating pottery was prompted by the discovery of numerous ceramic spalls in a pit adjacent to two ovens dating from the latest occupation phase of the site (second half of the 6th millennium BCE). Thermal spalling is the process of material cracking and breaking off as a result of thermal stress during either heat-induced drying or the initial stages of pottery firing.

    40The duration of these structures is difficult to calculate. Thermal shocks caused cracks and fractures during each firing episode, which could have resulted in a reduction or complete loss of airtightness and functional performance. The seven intact ovens, on the other hand, were discovered full of fine sediment filtered from the mouth, which was most likely closed with a wooden door. The partially detached vault was supported by the infilling, suggesting that they were still operational when abandoned.

    2.2. Ovens re-used as burial chambers

    41The discovery of three burials within two ovens provides compelling evidence of their conversion into tombs. Post-depositional processes have significantly affected the preservation of both the ovens and the human remains they contained, making it challenging to understand the ovens’ condition during the individuals’ interment. Moreover, there were no grave goods associated with the burials.

    42Both ovens are located in the central part of the area investigated so far, at a short distance from each other. In the case of Oven 1 only the base and a few centimetres of the walls remained (fig. 6). In the northwestern part of the oven, the remains of two individuals were unearthed, laying on top a layer of sediment that included pottery sherds and lithic artefacts. One individual was identified as being a male adult (T1), 30 to 35 years old, with partially articulated bones. The second individual was an indeterminate adult of similar age (T2). These burials were covered by two abandonment layers. The first layer, approximately 20 cm thick, contained stones, pottery sherds, and fragments resulting from the collapse of the oven. The second layer, around 15 cm thick, consisted of dark brown soil including a few lithic artifacts, pottery, and charcoals (fig. 7).

    43The positioning of the burials above an abandonment layer indicates that the oven’s primary function as a fire structure had been abandoned while the oven’s structure remained intact. Moreover, the layer of hardened soil fragments overlaying the skeletal remains strongly suggests that the collapse of the oven’s vault and walls occurred during its use as a burial chamber.

    44A human bone from burial T1 was dated by radiocarbon analysis to 6076 ± 45 BP, i.e. 5207-4843 BCE cal 2σ. This date is the latest one within the chronological sequence established at Portonovo.

    45The partially intact skeletal remains of a male aged over 55 were found within Oven 5, positioned along the eastern wall (fig. 8). The burial was placed in an east-west direction, with the head positioned towards the east. Only fragments of the skull, mandible, a few teeth, and upper limbs were preserved (Catalano, Di Giannantonio 2013).

    6. The two burials in oven 1.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    6. Les deux sépultures dans le Four 1 (© Projet Portonovo).

    7. Plan and sections of oven 1.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    7. Plan et sections du Four 1 (© Projet Portonovo).

    8. The burial inside oven 5.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    8. La sépulture dans le Four 5 (© Projet Portonovo).

    46Unlike the previous tomb, the abandonment layers, which precede and cover the burial were significantly disturbed by ploughing. Fragments of hardened soil were found within the filling of the structure, likely originating from the collapse of the vault and walls of the oven.

    47Two dates have been obtained from this context: charcoal samples from the basal layer of sediment covering the oven floor indicate 6500 ± 50 BP (5602-5358 BCE cal 2 σ) and a bone of the buried individual provides a slightly more recent date of 6418 ± 50 (5477-5317 BCE cal 2 σ; see table 1).

    48The short time span between the assumed final phase of use of oven 5 and the deposit of the male individual inside this feature supports the hypothesis that the oven was re-used as a tomb after a short period of abandonment. However, it is plausible that only this single structure was out of use, not the entire area of production. According to the chronology, burial T3 aligns with oven 13 (5474-5222 BCE cal 2 σ) and with the date of oven 16 as determined by archaeomagnetism (5472-5395 BCE cal.), revealing the latest heating episode of the oven. Both structures, oven 13 and oven 16, are located close to the ovens that contained the burials, indicating that the site continued to be used for production activities.

    49Lastly, the discovery of a cremation burial of a female individual aged no more than 20 years next to oven 5 provides another clue to the site’s strong connection with funerary practices. The burnt remains were carefully collected and stored in a container made of organic materials. The colour and deformation of the bones indicate that the whole body was exposed to temperatures ranging from 600° to 940° C (Catalano, Di Giannantonio 2013).

    50The possibility that cremation took place inside one of the ovens cannot be dismissed, as comparable temperatures were achieved in firing experiments carried out on a replica (Conati Barbaro et al. 2021).

    3. Places of life, places of death. Other examples of interconnection between fire structures and burials

    51The practice of burying individuals in places located next to firing structures is also documented at other Neolithic sites in the Italian peninsula. However, there is no evidence for the re-use of ovens or cooking pits as burial chambers. At Biccari Serra di Cristo in northern Apulia an adult female dated 5740-5620 BCE was buried in a hypogeum-like cavity with a lateral access pit, which had been deliberately excavated at the margins of a production area featuring ovens and combustion pits (Tunzi et al. 2014).

    52Similarly, at Casale del Dolce a long-term settlement located on a river terrace in Lazio (western central Italy), a cremation burial (T11), dated to the Middle Neolithic period (5th millennium BCE) was identified within an area dedicated to food processing (area E) including seven combustion pits, one hearth, and storage pits (Muntoni 2007). The presence of barley and wheat grains deposited in the burial may reflect the cyclical nature of time.

    53Comparisons are most relevant among sites in the Balkan region, despite the greater geographical and cultural distance. The site of Alsónyék-Bátaszék in southern Hungary is probably the most significant example (Bánffy et al. 2010; 2017). At this site, during the Starčevo phase, five out of the twenty-five burials were placed inside subterranean ovens that were arranged in groups within large pits located outside the settlement area. This particular ritual, exclusively dedicated to women and children, indicates a new burial practice characteristic of the Starčevo sites in the Carpathian Basin, in that complete skeletons and human remains were usually found in pits or scattered across the settlements (Bánffy et al. 2017, p. 51).

    54At Slavonski Brod, Croatia, a site also assigned to the Starčevo phase, a large area linked to ritual and funerary practices has been discovered. This area was in part surrounded by a semi-circular enclosure and contained two "pit dwellings" (Minichreiter 2001, p. 209). The larger one included two "cigar shaped ovens" (Minichreiter 2001), next to which two individuals were placed, one of whom was missing his/her skull.

    55These two examples thus relate to subterranean ovens similar to those found at the Portonovo site, built in large excavated pits and set apart from the settlement centre.

    56Different burial types involve dome-shaped ovens either in or adjacent to houses in settlements across Anatolia, Greece and the Balkans. Revealingly there is a close and obvious relationship in the contexts between the ovens and the houses, although the activities associated with subterranean ovens are part of the domestic sphere and are primarily linked to food preparation.

    57The excavations carried out during the 1960s at the site of Lepenski Vir on a bank of the Danube in the Iron Gates gorge made it possible to identify disarticulated human remains on the floor of a vaulted oven located outside the area hosting buildings with a trapeze-shaped plan dated to 6000-5845 BCE (Borić, Dimitrijević 2007, p. 61-63). According to the field documentation, the oven was used over a long period before being transformed into a burial place.

    58In Southeastern Europe, children and infants were primarily buried inside ovens, typically located within houses. According to G. Naumov, this practice emphasises the regenerative significance of these structures, symbolically associated with the female womb, fire, and its transformative power (Naumov 2007, p. 258). The symbolic connection between ovens and female reproductive organs lies in their shared essence of creation and transformation. Much like the womb, which nurtures and gives birth to life, ovens symbolise a similar process by giving birth to nourishment in the form of food and bread. Both possess an inherent power to generate, sustain, and transform, representing the cyclical nature of creation and renewal.

    59A particularly intriguing association between ovens and female symbolism is represented by the small breast-shaped vessel found in the basal level of oven 23 (fig. 9), and dated to 6673 ± 45 BP (5668-5513 BCE). The object, measuring 5 cm in diameter, was made of a fine clay paste and was carefully smoothed on both the inner and outer surfaces. At its conical end, several small, non-passing holes characterise the shape of the nipple. The representation of an anatomical detail characterising the female figure embodied by this clay object may evoke the cyclical nature of time, a concept closely linked to womankind, as noted by A. Testart (2010, p. 21). This symbolism appears even stronger when we consider the location of the model within a structure that produces and preserves fire and heat to transform and regenerate food and raw materials.

    9. The clay reproduction of a female breast from oven 23.

    (© Portonovo Project.)
    9. Reproduction en argile d’un sein féminin issu du four 23 (© Portonovo Project).

    4. Conclusion

    60Ovens stand out as distinct domestic features by virtue of their remarkable capacity to transform both organic substances such as food and inorganic materials such as clay, while also serving as sources of heat. The deliberate choice to re-use these features for funerary purposes may be closely linked to their primary function for the processing of large-scale grain, thereby emphasising their symbolic role in the transformation of the body from life to death.

    61Archaeological evidence from the Portonovo site shows that food preparation and consumption were central to community activities, suggesting that these practices were probably not confined to individual households.

    62The relationship between the living and the dead becomes obvious through the continuous use of spaces and features. Funerary evidence at the Portonovo site indicates the use of an area located apart from the settlement for burial purposes, re-using structures that were initially used for productive tasks. As previously stated, the burial of the deceased inside the remains of abandoned domestic structures was a common practice across the Italian peninsula during the 6th millennium BCE. Therefore, the funerary practices documented at Portonovo are partially consistent with those observed in contemporary archaeological contexts. Otherwise, the site itself continued to function, with new structures still being built and used.

    63As noted by J. Robb (2007, p. 64), the tradition of burying deceased individuals in close proximity to a settlement not only intertwines an individual’s personal narrative with the collective history of the social group but also confers upon that specific location the significance of a shared origin for the entire community. The strategic positioning of Portonovo’s ovens outside the settlement area stresses their pivotal role within the community. In addition, the practice of burying individuals inside these ovens amplifies their significance and highlights a profound sense of belonging for specific individuals, potentially those holding distinctive societal roles, within the broader community and the surrounding landscape.

    64As mentioned above, the number of buried individuals within Early Neolithic communities ranging from the Balkans to the Iberian Peninsula appears notably small in comparison to the estimated total population. This discrepancy is likely linked to a distinct ideology of death prevalent among the early agricultural societies in these regions. Deciphering the criteria that shaped decisions regarding the funerary treatment of community members is a challenge, although in the case of Portonovo it could be argued that this choice was the exception rather than the norm. The placement of three burials in two ovens out of a total of twenty-three, and the continuous use of both the site and the ovens during and after the deposits provide compelling evidence that the choice to use these specific locations was not merely opportunistic but rather a carefully considered and deliberate action.

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    Auteur

    • Cecilia Conati Barbaro

      Department of Science of Antiquities Sapienza University of Rome (Italy)

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    Conati Barbaro, C. (2025). Burials in ovens: simple re-use or a metaphor for life cycles?. In Émilie Leal, A. Peinetti, B. Perello, Y. Tchérémissinoff, & J. Wattez (éds.), La terre crue en contexte funéraire. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence. https://doi.org/10.4000/156tr
    Conati Barbaro, Cecilia. « Burials in ovens: simple re-use or a metaphor for life cycles? ». In La terre crue en contexte funéraire, édité par Émilie Leal, Alessandro Peinetti, Bérengère Perello, Yaramila Tchérémissinoff, et Julia Wattez. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence, 2025. doi:10.4000/156tr.
    Conati Barbaro, Cecilia. « Burials in ovens: simple re-use or a metaphor for life cycles? ». La terre crue en contexte funéraire, édité par Émilie Leal et al., Presses universitaires de Provence, 2025, https://doi.org/10.4000/156tr.

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    Leal, Émilie, Peinetti, A., Perello, B., Tchérémissinoff, Y., & Wattez, J. (éds.). (2025). La terre crue en contexte funéraire. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence. https://doi.org/10.4000/156u9
    Leal, Émilie, Alessandro Peinetti, Bérengère Perello, Yaramila Tchérémissinoff, et Julia Wattez, éd. La terre crue en contexte funéraire. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence, 2025. doi:10.4000/156u9.
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