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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral 1. Modelling the clay at Morgantina from the Archaic to the Hellenistic age. A case study for the knowledge of Sikeliote terracottas 2. Exploring the modelling process: industrial quarters, workshops and kilns 3. Hand modelling at Morgantina. Common items and masterpieces 4. Hades’ head: a unique hand-modelled masterpiece Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle

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    Table des matières

    Modelling the Gods

    Figurative Terracottas from Morgantina

    Serena Raffiotta

    p. 37-46

    Résumés

    Depuis la publication de « Morgantina Studies I. The terracottas » par Malcom Bell III en 1981, la production des figurines de terre cuite grecques de Morgantina est devenue un important point de référence pour la connaissance de cette classe d’objets. Aucun atelier n’a été découvert à Morgantina jusqu’à présent, mais la découverte de milliers de terres cuites moulées met au tout premier plan cette production typique de la Sicile grecque, prouvant l’excellent niveau de la technique de moulage. D’un autre côté, la petite quantité de figurines faites à la main trouvée sur le site sicilien explique pourquoi jusqu’à présent le modelage à Morgantina n’a pas encore été pris en compte par les chercheurs. L’attribution récente à Morgantina de la tête dite « tête d’Hadès », une sculpture grecque hellénistique en terre cuite polychrome grandeur nature, nous permet de considérer que le modelage n’est pas la preuve d’un stade de production moins avancé et qu’il n’a pas disparu à l›époque hellénistique. La tête d’Hadès est un chef-d’œuvre véritablement extraordinaire, librement modelé : les détails étonnants de la sculpture montrent que le modelage était répandu dans le monde hellénistique non seulement pour modeler des objets ordinaires mais aussi pour des pièces uniques telles que des statues de culte.

    Since the publication of “Morgantina Studies. I. The terracottas” by Malcolm Bell III in 1981, the production of Greek terracotta figurines at Morgantina has become a very important highlight for the knowledge of this class of items. No workshops have been uncovered in Morgantina until now, but the discovery of thousand and thousand mold-made terracottas greatly foregrounds this typical production of Greek Sicily, proving the excellent level of the molding technique. On the other side, the small quantity of hand-made figurines found in the Sicilian site explains why up to now hand-modelling at Morgantina hasn’t been considered by scholars yet. The recent attribution to Morgantina of the so called ‘Hades’ head, a life-size Greek Hellenistic polychrome terracotta sculpture, allows us to consider that hand-modelling isn’t evidence of a less advanced stage of production and that it didn’t disappear in the Hellenistic age. Hades’ head is a truly extraordinary freely modelled masterpiece: the astonishing details of the sculpture show that hand-modelling was widespread in the Hellenistic world not only to model ordinary object but also for unique pieces such as cult statues.

    Entrées d’index

    Mots-clés : Morgantina, modelage, terres cuites figurées, coroplathie, moule, Hadès, terres cuites votives, argile

    Keywords : Morgantina, hand modelling, figurative terracottas, coroplastic, mold, Hades, votive terracottas, clay

    Texte intégral 1. Modelling the clay at Morgantina from the Archaic to the Hellenistic age. A case study for the knowledge of Sikeliote terracottas 2. Exploring the modelling process: industrial quarters, workshops and kilns 3. Hand modelling at Morgantina. Common items and masterpieces 4. Hades’ head: a unique hand-modelled masterpiece Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Texte intégral

    1Morgantina is one of the most extensive and well preserved archaeological sites in the Mediterranean area1. The discovery of the ancient city in central Sicily dates back to 1955, when an American archaeological mission from Princeton University, directed by Professor Erik Sjöqvist2, came to Sicily for excavations in the countryside near Aidone, a small town in the modern province of Enna. There the Princeton team uncovered the majestic ruins of one of the most important and powerful ancient Greek cities in Sicily. Thanks to an official agreement with the Regional Government, after more than sixty years the American mission is still working at Morgantina, continuing fruitful excavations and scientific research3.

    2The impressive buildings of the Greek agorà, the political and commercial centre of the ancient city, date back to the Hellenistic period4. Between the 4th and the 3rd century B.C., under the control and the military protection of the powerful Syracuse, Morgantina had to play indeed a very important role in the history of Greek Sicily. However, the Greek presence at the site is older than the Hellenistic age. According to the archaeological evidence, in the mid-6th century B.C. Greeks came to this area from the colonies on the Eastern coast of Sicily and at that moment a radical change happened. The indigenous settlement of wooden huts, dating back to the Iron age (around 10th century B.C.) and attributed to the Sikel culture5, was transformed into a typical Greek urban centre6. The archaeological evidence dating back to the mid-6th century B.C. shows very clearly the predominance of Greek culture: figured vases were imported from Greece7, polychrome architectural terracottas were produced to embellish religious buildings8 (fig. 1)9 and a massive local production of Greek figurative votive terracottas started10 (fig. 2)11.

    Fig. 1 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Archaic terracotta antefix, invv. 67-639/ 67-177/ 67-638/ 68-64 (h. 22 cm, l. 13, 05 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 2 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Archaic terracotta votive statuette, sine inv. (h. 21 cm, l. 9, 3 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    1. Modelling the clay at Morgantina from the Archaic to the Hellenistic age. A case study for the knowledge of Sikeliote terracottas

    3The massive coroplastic evidence from Morgantina with several thousand terracottas - mostly votive objects from sanctuaries and cult deposits, some from domestic contexts12 - suggests observations about nearly all the themes the international colloquium “Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle. Le modelage dans le monde grec antique” aims to explore.

    4After the publication of the monograph “Morgantina Studies. I. The terracottas” by Professor Malcolm Bell III in 1981 the extraordinary evidence of this special class of items from the site was revealed, becoming soon a fundamental reference point for the knowledge of the terracotta production13 of ancient Sicily between the Greek Archaic and the Greek Hellenistic period. Professor Bell’ s research needs to be updated after the discoveries of the last fifty years14, but his study still remains a strong basis for coroplastic studies and a landmark for scholars in this field.

    5In 1981 Bell mentioned the discovery of more than two thousand terracottas, publishing a catalogue of one thousand three hundred and thirty-one items15. Recently, the study of Greek figurative terracottas from the San Francesco Bisconti extra-mural sanctuary at Morgantina carried out between 2004 and 2005 added new data to Professor Bell’s monography16. Combining the results of this recent research with Professor Bell’s data new conclusions were drawn, confirming that the coroplastic production at Morgantina is a very interesting case-study for the large quantity and the variety of the finds.

    6The figurative terracottas from the Sicilian site allow scholars to follow the evolution and the development - in terms of style and manufacture - of Greek terracottas from Sicily from the mid-6th to the end of 3rd century B.C. Visiting the Archaeological Museum of Aidone, where all the finds from Morgantina are collected and on display, it’s possible to appreciate every aspect of the coroplastic production in the Greek world: the variety of contexts, the variety of types, the variety of modelling techniques.

    7With good reason Professor Bell wrote that “The history of the terracottas of Morgantina is written in the history of the site”17. A limited number of finds belongs to the Greek Archaic and the Early Classical period18, when the Greek settlement on the Cittadella Hill was in its early phase. On the contrary, the abundance and the great variety of the Late Classical and the early Hellenistic terracottas show that between the 4th and the 3rd century B.C. Morgantina was in its period of highest development19. At the end of the 3rd century B.C. – the city was conquered by Romans in 211 B.C. – the terracotta production had a drastic reduction20. The extinction of the Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone was probably the main reason for this unexpected interruption: votive objects (mainly statuettes and busts depicting a female figure) are the largest percentage of the Greek terracottas found at the site confirming – as Professor Bell wrote – “…the extraordinary role played by the cult of Persephone in stimulating coroplastic production.”21.

    8The archaeological evidence shows a revival of votive terracottas during the Late Hellenistic period, between the 2nd and the Ist century B.C.22: the rare finds, female figurines and busts still related to the cult of chthonian gods, come mainly from domestic contexts23 and not from sanctuaries (as the finds from the Greek period), highlighting a new approach to religion for the citizens of Roman Morgantina. As Bell wrote, “...the worship of Persephone has become the essentially private activity of individual householders…”, while during the Greek period “…the cult had a conspicuous, almost public role at Morgantina…”24.

    2. Exploring the modelling process: industrial quarters, workshops and kilns

    9Going deeper into the topic of the colloquium, we’ll try now to focus on the modelling technique. What happened in ancient Morgantina when the clay was under the fingernail? In his detailed research Professor Bell dedicated some pages to this topic, discussing about the technique25. After a long and detailed analysis of stylistic and chronological matters, he focused also on fabrics, molds, manufacture as well as signatures and colour. What is striking with the extraordinary number of finds from Morgantina is the total absence of discoveries related to workshops in the archaeological area excavated by the American mission, that means - as a consequence - the lack of direct information about the modelling process.

    10No coroplastic workshops have been found yet at the Sicilian site and at the present moment we have little evidence of kilns at Morgantina and only the Late Hellenistic kilns of the IInd - Ist century B.C. have been studied and published26. We can suppose the presence of the industrial quarters in the suburbs of the ancient city, not completely explored. We can also presume that coroplasts shared workshops with potters27, as proved elsewhere in Sicily. The Hellenistic pottery from Morgantina decorated with applied plastic elements, recently published by Shelley Stone28, allows to presume that potters and coroplasts worked probably in collaboration.

    11A group of unpublished fragmentary Hellenistic molds29, found years ago at Morgantina in the area north of Plateia A between stenopoi 9 ad 10, allowed archaeologists to tentatively locate a workshop in that area but there’s no other archaeological evidence at the moment to prove it. Nevertheless, the abundance of clay as well as water and wood in this area in antiquity, the discovery of some molds30 (fig. 3a-b)31 and, above all, the presence of thousands mold-made figurative terracottas demonstrate the high level of a local mass production as well as the widespread use of molds32.

    Fig. 3 – a- b: Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic mould (inside and outside) of a standing woman, inv. 58-936 (h. 11,5 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    3. Hand modelling at Morgantina. Common items and masterpieces

    12We have actually little evidence of totally hand-modelled Greek figurative terracottas from Morgantina dating between the 6th and the 3rd century B.C.: an Archaic female head33; an Archaic plastic vase reproducing a mother monkey with child in arms34, imported and attributed to the Aphrodite Group (fig. 4); a Hellenistic bearded male head (probably belonging to a statue depicting Zeus) from the agorà (fig. 5)35, some small objects like animal figurines36 (fig. 6) or miniature parts of body (legs, arms) with the function of votive offerings (ex voto)37 and the recent discovery of a very well preserved polychrome satyr statuette38 (fig. 7) from the Hellenistic bath building at Contrada Agnese, west of the agorà.

    Fig. 4 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Archaic plastic vase of a mother monkey with child, inv. 69-621 (h. 9, 06 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 5 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek terracotta male head, inv. 56-2687 (h. 11, 2 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 6 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek terracotta goat figurine, inv. 57-2458 (h. 13, 08 cm, l. 3, 05 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 7 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta satyr figurine, inv. 05-265 (h. 19, 05 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    13The limited number of hand-modelled items found at the site is probably the reason why hand-modelling hasn’t been considered thoroughly enough by scholars studying Morgantina. The most significant evidence of hand-modelling comes from the very well-known and remarkable series of Greek Hellenistic female statuettes and half-busts related with the cult of the chthonian goddesses Demeter and Persephone39. They illustrate the common tradition of combining the two different techniques, the use of molds as well as hand-modelling.

    14Having a look at them – especially at the busts – we can clearly understand the role played by hand-modelling in a traditionally mold-made object: details - mostly of hair - were freely hand-modelled to complete a mold made object. This combination of two different techniques permitted a variety of solutions.

    15A couple of very well preserved polychrome Hellenistic busts from Morgantina40, belonging to the same series, is today on display at the archaeological museum in Aidone (fig. 8-9). The lower area of the two busts was hand-modelled as well as the long locks on the shoulders of one of the two busts. The addition of freely modelled details to a mold-made figure created very original pieces. Usually the hair of statuettes and busts was defined and detailed by hand-modelling, retouching the objects after the molding process (fig. 10). This generated an astonishing variety in the production, especially during the Hellenistic age.

    Fig. 8 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive bust, inv. 58-2147 (h. 48 cm, l. 35, 6 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 9 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive bust, inv. 58-2146 (h. 46, 6 cm, l. 36 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 10 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive bust, inv. 57-2050 (h. 44 cm, l. 36, 5 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    16Looking at this evidence from Morgantina we can confidently say that in Greek Sicily hand-modelling didn’t represent a less advanced stage in the production of this class of objects; it was widespread in addition to the use of molds to better define the details of the terracottas. For this reason, we can confirm that hand-modelling didn’t disappear as a direct consequence of the diffusion of molds: the two techniques, strictly related to one another, coexisted during the whole Greek period, from the 6th to the 3rd century B.C.

    4. Hades’ head: a unique hand-modelled masterpiece

    17The study of the Morgantina terracottas demonstrates also that hand-modelling wasn’t limited to the Archaic period and that it was widespread in the Hellenistic age. In my opinion, the minor role usually attributed to hand-modelling is only an erroneous modern perspective. We only have to look at the extraordinary Greek Hellenistic terracotta sculpture known as ‘Hades head’41 (fig. 11-12-13) to better understand this phenomenon. Illegally excavated at Morgantina in the late Seventies and acquired by Getty Museum in Los Angeles in 198542, the sculpture was recently returned to Sicily and since 2016 it’s one of the masterpieces in the collection of the archaeological museum in Aidone.

    Fig. 11 – a: Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive sculpture known as Hades’ head (h. 29 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 11 – b: Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive sculpture known as Hades’ head (h. 29 cm) front view

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 12 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive sculpture known as Hades’ head (h. 29 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    Fig. 13 – Aidone, Archaeological Museum.

    Greek Hellenistic terracotta votive sculpture known as Hades’ head (h. 29 cm)

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    18‘Hades head’, magnificently hand-modelled, isn’t Archaic; indeed, it isn’t evidence of a less advanced stage of modelling. On the contrary, the terracotta polychrome head was part of a unique Greek Hellenistic cult statue representing Hades, the Lord of the Underworld43. A cult statue isn’t an object of minor interest: a cult statue is the representation of the divine, it’s an icon of the supernatural. The unknown artist who shaped the head had to be a very expert craftsman, able to give life to a clay block under his fingernails. By choosing the cheapest and the poorest raw material, clay, and using only his hands and his basic tools, he modelled a very lifelike image of the terrible God.

    19The details of Hades head, excellent example of the coroplastic art of Greek Sicily, are really astonishing: a hand-modelled mass of curls, long for the blue painted beard and flat and short for the red hair, frames a very expressive face (fig. 11). The thick, spiral-shaped curls were applied to the head before firing and only in a second phase, when the sculpture was dried but non fired yet, using a very pointed tool the coroplast made thin and deep incisions on the curls to make them more realistic (fig. 12). Probably using the same pointed tool, the unknown artist incised deep lines to define moustaches. He also highlighted Hades’ almond-shaped eyes with deep incisions (fig. 13), we don’t know if only to give the God a gloomier expression or to fix metal eyelashes, today missing. The iris of eyes is also marked with a very thin incised line.

    20To better understand the manufacture of this amazing work of art I asked Lorenzo Camiolo, a young craftsman in Aidone44, to show me the modelling process of a ‘modern’ Hades (fig. 14). Looking at the replica, we can undoubtedly affirm that, after centuries, the secrets of modelling as well as the tools are always the same. Lorenzo told us the steps and the secrets of his technique. He models the head first, shaping the face. Then, when the clay is dried but not fired yet, he adds the spiral-shaped curls, modelled one by one: long curls for the beard and short curls for the hair. That’s the moment when he makes incised details using a pointed tool: moustaches, eyes, deep lines on the curls. Once dried, the sculpture is ready to be fired and then painted in blue and red colours.

    Fig. 14 – The craftsman Lorenzo Camiolo modelling a contemporary Hades’ head replica

    (© Photo S. Raffiotta).

    21This experiment greatly helped me to understand the great complexity of the hand-modelling process, persuading me that the future goal of our research is to give to this process the value it deserves, recognizing that hand-modelling was – and is still – the most genuine act of creation.

    Bibliographie

    Antonaccio 1997 : C. Antonaccio, Urbanism at Archaic Morgantina, ActaHyp, VII, 1997, 167-193.

    Antonaccio 2004 : C. Antonaccio, Siculo-geometric and the Sikels. Identity and Material Culture in Eastern Sicily, in: K. Lomas (éd.), Greek Identity in the Western Mediterranean: papers in honour of Brian Shefton, Leyde, Brill, 2004, 504 p., 55-81.

    Bell 1981 : M. Bell, The terracottas, Princeton, Princeton University Press, (Morgantina Studies, 1), 1981, 266 p.

    Bell 2010 : M. Bell, Serra Orlando, in : Bibliografia Topografica della Colonizzazione Greca in Italia e nelle isole tirreniche XVIII, Pise, Rome et Naples, Scuola normale superiore, École française de Rome, Centre Jean Bérard, 2010, 803 p., 724-751.

    Cuomo di Caprio 1992 : N. Cuomo di Caprio, Fornaci e officine da Vasaio tardo-ellenistiche, Princeton, Princeton University press, (Morgantina Studies, 3), 1992, 192 p.

    Edlund Berry 2003 : I. Edlund Berry, Erik Sjoqvist: archeologo svedese e ricercatore internazionale alla Princeton University, in : Annuario. Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia, Rome, (Storia e Storia dell’Arte in Roma, 45), 2003, 173-185.

    Greco, Raffiotta 2020 : C. Greco, S. Raffiotta, Demetra a Morgantina: topografia e culti nel Thesmophorion di San Francesco Bisconti. Architettura, ex voto e pratiche rituali, in : L. Grasso, F. Caruso, R. Gigli Patanè (dir.), Sikelikà Hierà. Approcci multidisciplinari allo studio del sacro nella Sicilia greca, Atti del Convegno di Studi (Catania, 11-12 Giugno 2010), Catane, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Scienze del Patrimonia Culturale – Sede di Catania, 2020, 392 p., 201-220.

    Kenfield 1997 : J.F. Kenfield, Technical Variety in the Archaic Architectural Terracottas of Morgantina, in: P.S. Lulof, E.M. Moormann (éd.), Deliciae Fictiles II. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Archaic Architectural Terracottas from Italy, Netherlands Institute in Rome 12-13 June 1996, Amsterdam, Thesis Publ., 1997, 266 p., 107-112.

    Leighton 1993 : R. Leighton, The Protohistoric Settlement on the Cittadella, Princeton, Princeton University press, (Morgantina Studies, 4), 1993, 240 p.

    Leighton 2012 : R. Leighton, Prehistoric houses at Morgantina. Excavations on the Cittadella of Morgantina in Sicily, 1989-2004, Londres, Accordia Research Institute, University of London, (Accordia specialist studies on Italy, 15), 2012, 294 p.

    Lyons 1996 : C.L. Lyons, The Archaic Cemeteries, Princeton, Princeton University press, (Morgantina Studies, 5), 1996, 261 p.

    Muller 1997 : A. Muller, Description et analyse des productions moulées. Proposition de lexique multilingue, suggestions de méthode, in : A. Muller (éd.), Le moulage en terre cuite dans l’Antiquité. Création et production dérivée, fabrication et diffusion, actes du colloque de Lille (1995), Villeneuve d’Ascq, Presses universitaires du Septentrion, (Collection UL 3), 1997, 463 p., 437-463.

    Neils 1996 : J. Neils, Attic Vases from Morgantina, in: Vasi attici ed altre ceramiche coeve in Sicilia. Atti del convegno internazionale. Catania, Camarina, Gela, Vittoria, 28 marzo-1 aprile 1990, Catane, Centro di Studio sull’Archeologia Greca, 1996, 2 volumes, 199 p., 246 p., 173-178.

    Neils 2003 : J. Neils, City versus Cemetery, the Imported Pottery of Archaic Morgantina, in : B. Schmaltz, M. Söldner (éd.), Griechische Keramik im kulturellen Kontext. Akten des Internationalen Vasen-symposions (Kiel, 24-28, 9, 2001), Münster, Scriptorium, 2003, 289 p., 56-61.

    Pelagatti 2002 : P. Pelagatti, Archeologia svedese in Sicilia, ORom, XXVII, 2002, 105-107.

    Raffiotta 2007 : S. Raffiotta, Terrecotte figurate dal santuario di San Francesco Bisconti a Morgantina, Enna, EditOpera, 2007, 144 p.

    Raffiotta 2008 : S. Raffiotta, Reperti dal complesso termale settentrionale, in : C. Bonanno (dir.), Museo archeologico di Aidone. Catalogo, Palerme, Soprintendenza beni culturali e ambientali di Enna, 2008, 159 p., 134, n. 5.

    Raffiotta 2013a : S. Raffiotta, Un satiro danzante a Morgantina, CSIG News. Newsletter of the Coroplastic Studies Interest Group, no. 9, Winter 2013, 9-10.

    Raffiotta 2013b : S. Raffiotta, Reperti dal complesso termale settentrionale, in : C. Bonanno (dir.), Museo archeologico di Morgantina. Catalogo, Rome, « L’Erma » di Bretschneider, 2013, 159 p., 146, n. 5.

    Raffiotta 2014 : S. Raffiotta, Una divinità maschile per Morgantina, CSIG News. Newsletter of the Coroplastic Studies Interest Group, no. 11, Winter 2014, 23-26.

    Raffiotta 2015 : S. Raffiotta, Il ritorno del dio degli Inferi a Morgantina, Archeomafie. Open Access Journal of Cultural Heritage Protection, VII, Naples, 2015, 69-91.

    Raffiotta 2016 : S. Raffiotta, Arte rubata, arte ritrovata: Morgantina e il ritorno del dio Ade, Forma Urbis, Anno XXI, n. 10, Ottobre 2016, 43-49.

    Raffiotta 2018 : S. Raffiotta, Il viaggio degli dei rubati. Morgantina tra saccheggi e recuperi, in : P. Giulierini, L. Melillo, D. Savy (dir.), Archeologia ferita. Lotta al traffico illecito e alla distruzione dei beni culturali, Atti del Convegno di Studi (Napoli, 14-15 Novembre 2017), Naples, Editoriale Scientifica, 2018, 255 p., 229-238.

    Stone 2014 : S. Stone, The Hellenistic and Roman Fine pottery, Princeton, Princeton University press, (Morgantina Studies, 6), 2014, 485 p.

    Tsakirgis 1995 : B. Tsakirgis, Morgantina: a Greek Town in Central Sicily, ActaHyp, VI, 1995, 123-147.

    Notes de bas de page

    1The bibliography about Morgantina is really huge. A full up to date list is in Bell 2010. Images publication was authorized by Parco Archeologico di Morgantina e della Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina.

    2Pelagatti 2002; Edlund Berry 2003; Bell 2010, 728.

    3Bell 2010, 728-738. At present the American excavation at Morgantina is co-directed by Professor Malcolm Bell III and Professor Carla Antonaccio. See https://morgantina.org/

    4Tsakirgis 1995; Bell 2010.

    5Antonaccio 2004.

    6Leighton 1993; Antonaccio 1997.

    7Lyons 1996; Neils 1996; Neils 2003.

    8Kenfield 1997.

    9Greek Archaic terracotta antefix from the Cittadella naiskos (invv. 67-639/ 67-177/ 67-638/ 68-64).

    10Bell 1981, 8-21; Raffiotta 2007, 37-38, 41-50, 83-86, 90-97.

    11Greek Archaic terracotta votive statuette (sine inv.) from the extra-mural San Francesco Bisconti sanctuary. See Raffiotta 2007, 45-46, cat. n. 21. For excavations at this sanctuary see Greco-Raffiotta 2020.

    12A detailed list of contexts is in Bell 1981, 238-260.

    13Muller 1997.

    14Bell 1981. Bell’s catalogue includes objects uncovered at Morgantina from 1955 until 1972.

    15Bell 1981, 115-237.

    16Raffiotta 2007. After the analysis of circa four hundred terracottas, mostly fragmentary, I published a catalogue with a selection of one hundred fifty-eight items.

    17Bell 1981, 4.

    18According to Malcolm Bell’s research, only seventy-five items out of one thousand three hundred and thirty-one in his catalogue are related to the Greek Archaic and the Early-Classical period. See Bell 1981, 9-21.

    19For the terracottas attributed to the Late Classical and the early Hellenistic period see Bell 1981, 22-73.

    20For the terracottas of the late Hellenistic phase see Bell 1981, 74-80.

    21Bell 1981, 3.

    22See Bell 1981, 76-77.

    23Bell 1981, 77.

    24Bell 1981, 77.

    25Bell 1981, 116-122.

    26 Cuomo di Caprio 1992.

    27 Cuomo di Caprio 1992, 4, foot-note 10.

    28 Stone 2014.

    29 Professor Bell kindly showed me these items in the storage room at the museum in Aidone.

    30 Twenty-one molds have been catalogued by Professor Bell (Bell 1981, 118), only one by me (Raffiotta 2007, 114). A very interesting big-size Hellenistic mold from Morgantina is in the collection of the archaeological museum “P. Orsi” at Syracuse (inv. 48598). See Bell 1981, 154-155, cat. n. 203.

    31The mold at figure 3 a-b (inv. 58-936) is of a draped woman. This mold (Bell 1981, 179, cat. n. 395) was found together with its positive. On the edges there are the markings.

    32Bell wrote that “…most of the local terracottas were made in molds...” (Bell 1981, 3).

    33Bell 1981, 126, cat. n. 19.

    34Bell 1981, 131, cat. n. 55. This piece isn’t a local production, it’s a Ionian import attributed to the Aphrodite group. The vase was wheel made while the figures were hand-modelled.

    35Bell 1981, 207, cat. n. 690.

    36Bell 1981, 98, 224-228. The rampant billy goat cat. n. 882 at figure 6 is hand-modelled.

    37Bell 1981, 224, cat. n. 846; Raffiotta 2007, 110, cat. n. 158.

    38Raffiotta 2008; Raffiotta 2013a; Raffiotta 2013b.

    39Bell 1981, 81-111.

    40Bell 1981, 142-143, cat. n.113 a (inv. 58-2146, h. 46,6 cm., l. 36) -b (inv. 58-2147, h. 48 cm., l. 35,6).

    41Raffiotta 2007.

    42For the story of the illegal excavation and the restitution of Hades’ head see Raffiotta 2014; Raffiotta 2015; Raffiotta 2016; Raffiotta 2018.

    43The terracotta head belongs to a life-size cult statue that in the Hellenistic period was on display in the extra-mural sanctuary at San Francesco Bisconti site, east of the Greek agorà ad west of the Cittadella hill. There’s a suspicion that Hades statue was displayed together with a life-size female statue with curly hair, depicting Persephone. The group of the two life-size sculptures, probably seated, could have been modelled to show a hierogamia, the sacred wedding. Both were illegally excavated in the late Seventies; Persephone is still missing.

    44Lorenzo Camiolo is the name of the craftsman; his workshop in Aidone is “Bentornato artigianato” (http://www.bentornatoartigianato.com/).

    Auteur

    • Serena Raffiotta

      Archaeologist and independent researcher, serenaraffiotta[at]gmail.com

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    1The bibliography about Morgantina is really huge. A full up to date list is in Bell 2010. Images publication was authorized by Parco Archeologico di Morgantina e della Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina.

    2Pelagatti 2002; Edlund Berry 2003; Bell 2010, 728.

    3Bell 2010, 728-738. At present the American excavation at Morgantina is co-directed by Professor Malcolm Bell III and Professor Carla Antonaccio. See https://morgantina.org/

    4Tsakirgis 1995; Bell 2010.

    5Antonaccio 2004.

    6Leighton 1993; Antonaccio 1997.

    7Lyons 1996; Neils 1996; Neils 2003.

    8Kenfield 1997.

    9Greek Archaic terracotta antefix from the Cittadella naiskos (invv. 67-639/ 67-177/ 67-638/ 68-64).

    10Bell 1981, 8-21; Raffiotta 2007, 37-38, 41-50, 83-86, 90-97.

    11Greek Archaic terracotta votive statuette (sine inv.) from the extra-mural San Francesco Bisconti sanctuary. See Raffiotta 2007, 45-46, cat. n. 21. For excavations at this sanctuary see Greco-Raffiotta 2020.

    12A detailed list of contexts is in Bell 1981, 238-260.

    13Muller 1997.

    14Bell 1981. Bell’s catalogue includes objects uncovered at Morgantina from 1955 until 1972.

    15Bell 1981, 115-237.

    16Raffiotta 2007. After the analysis of circa four hundred terracottas, mostly fragmentary, I published a catalogue with a selection of one hundred fifty-eight items.

    17Bell 1981, 4.

    18According to Malcolm Bell’s research, only seventy-five items out of one thousand three hundred and thirty-one in his catalogue are related to the Greek Archaic and the Early-Classical period. See Bell 1981, 9-21.

    19For the terracottas attributed to the Late Classical and the early Hellenistic period see Bell 1981, 22-73.

    20For the terracottas of the late Hellenistic phase see Bell 1981, 74-80.

    21Bell 1981, 3.

    22See Bell 1981, 76-77.

    23Bell 1981, 77.

    24Bell 1981, 77.

    25Bell 1981, 116-122.

    26 Cuomo di Caprio 1992.

    27 Cuomo di Caprio 1992, 4, foot-note 10.

    28 Stone 2014.

    29 Professor Bell kindly showed me these items in the storage room at the museum in Aidone.

    30 Twenty-one molds have been catalogued by Professor Bell (Bell 1981, 118), only one by me (Raffiotta 2007, 114). A very interesting big-size Hellenistic mold from Morgantina is in the collection of the archaeological museum “P. Orsi” at Syracuse (inv. 48598). See Bell 1981, 154-155, cat. n. 203.

    31The mold at figure 3 a-b (inv. 58-936) is of a draped woman. This mold (Bell 1981, 179, cat. n. 395) was found together with its positive. On the edges there are the markings.

    32Bell wrote that “…most of the local terracottas were made in molds...” (Bell 1981, 3).

    33Bell 1981, 126, cat. n. 19.

    34Bell 1981, 131, cat. n. 55. This piece isn’t a local production, it’s a Ionian import attributed to the Aphrodite group. The vase was wheel made while the figures were hand-modelled.

    35Bell 1981, 207, cat. n. 690.

    36Bell 1981, 98, 224-228. The rampant billy goat cat. n. 882 at figure 6 is hand-modelled.

    37Bell 1981, 224, cat. n. 846; Raffiotta 2007, 110, cat. n. 158.

    38Raffiotta 2008; Raffiotta 2013a; Raffiotta 2013b.

    39Bell 1981, 81-111.

    40Bell 1981, 142-143, cat. n.113 a (inv. 58-2146, h. 46,6 cm., l. 36) -b (inv. 58-2147, h. 48 cm., l. 35,6).

    41Raffiotta 2007.

    42For the story of the illegal excavation and the restitution of Hades’ head see Raffiotta 2014; Raffiotta 2015; Raffiotta 2016; Raffiotta 2018.

    43The terracotta head belongs to a life-size cult statue that in the Hellenistic period was on display in the extra-mural sanctuary at San Francesco Bisconti site, east of the Greek agorà ad west of the Cittadella hill. There’s a suspicion that Hades statue was displayed together with a life-size female statue with curly hair, depicting Persephone. The group of the two life-size sculptures, probably seated, could have been modelled to show a hierogamia, the sacred wedding. Both were illegally excavated in the late Seventies; Persephone is still missing.

    44Lorenzo Camiolo is the name of the craftsman; his workshop in Aidone is “Bentornato artigianato” (http://www.bentornatoartigianato.com/).

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    Raffiotta, S. (2022). Modelling the Gods. In H. Aurigny & L. Rohaut (éds.), Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle (1‑). Presses universitaires de Provence. https://doi.org/10.4000/13ths
    Raffiotta, Serena. « Modelling the Gods ». In Quand on a La Terre Sous l’ongle, édité par Hélène Aurigny et Laura Rohaut. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4000/13ths.
    Raffiotta, Serena. « Modelling the Gods ». Quand on a La Terre Sous l’ongle, édité par Hélène Aurigny et Laura Rohaut, Presses universitaires de Provence, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4000/13ths.

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    Aurigny, H., & Rohaut, L. (éds.). (2022). Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle (1‑). Presses universitaires de Provence. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tio
    Aurigny, Hélène, et Laura Rohaut, éd. Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tio.
    Aurigny, Hélène, et Laura Rohaut, éditeurs. Quand on a la terre sous l’ongle. Presses universitaires de Provence, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4000/13tio.
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