Introduction

1Schoolchildren’s language skills, especially those of expressing opinion and argumentation, can be developed in current primary school through mutual interaction, working in pairs or small teams. Every learner should first of all understand and then explain what (s)he has understood. This is the way to create knowledge (Bertin, Gravé, & Narcy-Combes, 2010; Narcy-Combes, 2014). Language learning also relies on thinking about the linguistic content and the grammar. The basis of language learning can be developed by working in pairs or in small teams; this new method can be aptly applied in primary school (Verreman, 2003; Narcy-Combes, 2014). This is learning led by communicating and discussing with individuals in the immediate environment. The entire above-mentioned practice and the development of linguistic skills are closely linked to the mission of the Lithuanian education as defined in the State Education Strategy 2013-2022 (2014); the main goal that is laid down in this strategy is “to provide every individual who relates himself/herself to Lithuania with the basics of independent and active life, to help them to continuously improve their abilities to become fully-fledged members in a democratic society who are active in a social, economic and cultural life” (p. 21). For an individual to be independent and active, they have to have good linguistic skills and a well-argued opinion. Besides, the issue of developing argumentation skills is also emphasized in the National Curriculum Framework of Lithuanian Language in Primary School (Bareikienė, Jakavonytė-Staškuvienė, Jonynienė and others, 2016, p. 11). This document states that a fourth grader (children 10-11 years) should be able to express opinion and to ground it with arguments; to speak with the goal of communication in mind, e.g. to tell a story in order to raise interest, to inform precisely, to explain, to describe in detail, to put forward arguments in order to persuade others. Therefore, in order to fulfil these expectations, the process of linguistic education should be organized in the primary school. Collaboration in pairs refers to situations when knowledge and understanding are developed collaboratively by sharing and exchanging information and differences of opinion. Collaboration based on shared problem solving and creative activity where other opinions are taken into account and advice is given plays a very important role (as stated in Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, 2018). In this article we will show the way primary schoolchildren develop language (L1) argumentation skills and reflect on the activity when working in pairs.

1 Theories of language (L1) learning and argumentation skills

2Vygotsky (1933/1997), Krashen (1981) and other scientists put forth the comprehension of learning as the integral whole that covers language rules and activities to develop linguistic expression. Mastering a language involves both the knowledge of grammar as well as understanding and creating the content, i.e. incorporating the language into one’s identity (interiorizing). However, the development of communication competence is time consuming, and there is usually not enough time for it in the educational process. Learning a language (L1) at school, in the classroom, takes reflection, thinking about the activity in order to identify the learning techniques you are good at and ways to overcome difficulties. Language learning is based on the theory of social constructivism (Verreman, 2003; Stratilaki, 2011). One of the key social aspects of a language (L1) is to understand and to interpret thoughts. Not many primary schoolchildren are capable of putting forward arguments to ground the thoughts they express. Therefore, increasingly more attention is being given to the development of this crucial personal skill in the educational practice in Lithuania (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PIRLS 2016 Lithuanian survey data, 2017).

3An important factor is the learner’s internal motivation. Contemporary educational methodologies of language (L1) teaching strongly emphasize a constant stimulation of learners’ motivation, which is only possible through talking and agreement with learners (Jolliffe, 2015; Buchs, 2017; Jacq & Gibert, 2019). Innovative teaching methods take into account the educational interactions based on communication, cognitive knowledge, intercultural knowledge, and an active constructivist attitude where the learning content is created and perceived by the learners themselves who make their own decisions about their own learning (Bertin et al., 2010; Narcy-Combes, 2014). Deep skills in language (L1) have to be developed for the process to be smooth. These skills enable the learner to think and contemplate actively. The search for innovative didactics by which children are encouraged to learn the language (L1) and to ground their opinion with arguments has several goals. It is crucial that children are willing to learn, to develop their curiosity, to learn to cooperate, to share knowledge and experience (of cognitive content).

4For the learning cycle to take place smoothly it is advisable to use performance self-assessment strategies during the learning process; they help teachers to organize the monitoring process effectively and to develop learner’s metacognitive abilities. Learning (self)-assessment is a process which should be carefully considered and planned in advance (before a language activity) (Narcy-Combes, 2014; Buchs, 2017). Reflection on performance helps children to provide arguments to justify the (self)-assessment. The application of self-assessment strategies has several goals, including: to establish criteria based on which pupils and a teacher will collect data that shows learning and acquiring knowledge; to plan the way this collected data about linguistic activity will be presented; to review and discuss, if necessary, the planning of the upcoming language learning process, its content and an expected result.

5The following features develop metacognitive reasoning on the basis of language: acquiring proper language learning experience, showing the importance of the topic to pupils, because pupils led by inquisitiveness can accumulate a much more considerable experience (Jolliffe, 2015; Buchs, 2017; Jacq & Gibert, 2019). Such learning enables pupils to develop investigation-based language learning experience, where children individually or in teams think through possible solutions and arguments which can be either strong or weak. It also helps them to adapt their learning to themselves (according to different skill levels) as well as encourages them to adapt language learning from one context/subject to another and (or) create new learning. This method also provides the learner with a possibility to reflect on what they have learned and collaborated in pair. Reflection can be focused on the content (what has been learned) and (or) on the processes (how we learned certain elements of the language content, such as words, phrases, sentences; what method was effective and helped us to create a positive and involving learning environment). It provides pupils with opportunities to learn to ask questions and answer them; it also offers them constant and meaningful feedback which is relevant to language learning goals as well as encourages pupils to use this feedback for further learning.

2 Application of achievements (self)-assessment strategy to master the language content

6Pupils’ monitoring and registering evidence/progress made in the context of any language content is crucial for an adequate (self)-assessment of achievements. When a chosen self-assessment method is applied, one must remember the following strategic steps: You can define what language skills (L1) pupils ought to acquire. Then you should think about what tools you are going to use for pupils to acquire the expected language skills (how you are going to register pupils’ achievements and progress, how you are going to identify the features of achievements). Finally, one decides on how you are going to interpret this evidence/result(s) achieved in a certain area of language activity (Bertin et al., 2010; Narcy-Combes, 2014; Jolliffe, 2015; Buchs, 2017; Jacq & Gibert, 2019).

7When planning language activities, six criteria, which define the importance of assessment in the process of education, must be observed:

Fig. 1 — Criteria for the assessment of argumentation-based language (L1) curriculum.

8Figure 1 describes the strategy of an everyday language curriculum which should help the teacher to develop motivation elements in the educational process; they should in turn help pupils to make the content relevant to themselves. Only relevant content can help the learner see meaning in activities that take place while learning. Criteria of good work enable the learner to focus their efforts to achieve a desirable/expected/agreed result. To facilitate students’ practice, it is useful to prepare memory aids or prompts for more complex language situations and contexts, for example, children should be given words or sentences to use in their arguments. A deep reflexive analysis can help children to understand the material better, whereas questions provided to them can help them prepare for such an analysis. The schemes of such questions can help pupils to learn to ask questions. In order to assess the results of education processes in objective terms, teachers can refer back to negotiated/agreed criteria and organise the self-assessment process accordingly when children learn by working in pairs.

3 Reflection on activities as a background to (self)-assess the process and the result of language education when children learn by working in pairs

9Numerous researchers worldwide discuss various aspects of the importance of reflection in the educational process (Paquay, De Cock & Wibault, 2004; Vanhulle, 2009; Galvani, 2009; Pineau, 2009; Delory-Momberger, 2013; Morisse, 2014). The purpose of assessment in the educational process is to help the learner to construct the educational practice in such a way that it is clear why we are seeking it, for what purpose, how and when we are applying it, and to determine the result. Answers to all of these questions form a basis of reflective education (Pineau, 2009; Morisse, 2014). The pupil becomes the centre of learning and uses various strategies as a result of actions. The basis of learning to learn is made up of components such as self-monitoring, self-analysis, and self-regulation which are important throughout life. These learning components are important for the development of pupils (10-11 years) argumentation skills. All these components are of key importance in reflective learning. Such an activity can help learners describe their behaviour, experiences, feelings, to correct and to see their improvement, growth of knowledge and thoughts which can be manifested psychologically (thinking about your work) and through behaviour. This is a good strategy for critically examining one’s knowledge it scrutinizes experiences, images and attitudes regarding the situation being analysed. Reflection in the educational process is very dynamic and it often transforms into other activities. All of these thinking procedures facilitate the development of argument-based thinking skills when children learn by working in pairs. Schoolchildren can discuss, evaluate the learning process and the result.

10Social and individual support and activities offer opportunities for various types of reflection (Cros, 2006; Cros, Lafortune & Morisse, 2009; Morisse, Lafortune & Cros, 2011). We can reflect in various ways on an individual basis, in a pair or a small team, by engaging in joint personal writing etc. Scientists who research reflection extensively (Vygotski (1933/1997), Goody (1977/1979), Olson (1994/2010) indicate the necessity to speak your thoughts out loud during reflection, they also state and emphasize the importance of writing. Reflection is a wonderful cognitive tool and method which facilitates the development of thought. To operate smoothly we should not forget the purpose of its functions, the process control, hidden meanings in the texts of other individuals—it all plays a role in the creation of knowledge before, during and after activities; by coming back and reflecting on all events from the beginning to the end (Pineau, 2009; Delory-Momberger, 2013). Reflection helps pupils to see the meaning of practice and the clarity of content, especially when it comes to activities of educational process.

11Dialogue helps children clarify thought in a reflective perspective. Primary schoolchildren learn to listen to each other and build on each other's thoughts and ideas to achieve good results. A child between the ages of 10 and 11 can work with another child and pursue a common goal. In this way, both children learn to consult, express an opinion and come to a common result (Jolliffe, 2015; Buchs, 2017; Jacq & Gibert, 2019). Children are more likely to succeed in cognitive tasks when they work in pairs (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 2007; Rouiller & Lehraus, 2008; Sharan, 2010; Plante, 2012). In fact, five basic conditions are necessary for cooperation: positive interdependence, individual responsibility, promotion of interactions, social and cooperative skills.

4 The scope and organization of the survey

12An action research was carried out in a traditional Lithuanian school. In this school, pupils' work in pairs is rarely applied (the teachers at this school mostly use classical frontal work with the whole class). During two lessons (the educational activity lasted 1 hour and 30 minutes) dedicated to the development argumentation skills children looked into the differences between the thesis and the argument and learned to ground the analysis of a literary text “Skėčiai” (“Umbrellas”) by Gintare Adomaityte with arguments. The lessons took place in March 2018. They were organized in two fourth grade classes with a total of 36 pupils (10-11 years) at one school in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius.

13This chapter presents a qualitative data analysis of the children’s performance during part of the two Lithuanian language lessons. The aim of the activity was to investigate whether after reading the text pupils, could write the appropriate thesis and arguments according to the content of the text. Pupils read the text, write theses and arguments while working in pairs, and are able to consult. During the lesson, pupils read a work of fiction which contained a clear description of the lives of two different families, i.e. a three-member human family (a mother, a father and a small child) and an “umbrella family”. The bottom line of the text is the human life where everybody is swamped with work and spends very little time with others, because the dad is always at work and comes back home very tired. The pupils were asked to compare the lives of the umbrella and human families during the pair work and to write down a statement with arguments that describe these families.

14In the beginning of the lesson, pupils were explained what a thesis and what an argument are. Pupils were given argumentation leaflets as an aid instrument with the beginning sentences for statements that prove theses; this was done to facilitate children’s learning to formulate ideas based on arguments after reading a literary text.

15Figure 2 shows the argumentation leaflet for pupils which was explained to them, a large poster of it was fixed on the blackboard and every pupil received this leaflet individually as well. Children were creating statements (theses) and arguments proving them by using sentence structures/models provided.

16First of all the text was analysed orally in class; the goal of this analysis was to discuss the plot, the characters, the events, the time and space. Then pupils had to work independently in pairs and to write down a thesis and an argument / arguments to describe families of the story characters. Children were instructed to describe the umbrellas and people family. In Figure 3, I present the task. This task had to be done by two pupils working in pairs.

Fig. 3 — An example of a pupil argumentation skills development task.

17Theses and arguments had been discussed at the end of the lesson (pupils read them to the whole class). Theses and arguments written by pupils based on the content of the text were criteria for good work in this study. The thoughts presented by the pairs of pupils are analyzed in Tables 1-4. The following tables present the responses of the different pairs of pupils who completed the task most clearly and comprehensively. At the end of the lesson, pupils reflected on their experiences, on the content of the text, and wrote arguments why the text written by Gintare Adomaityte is fiction (the results are in Table 5). This is reflection of a cognitive content. Pupils are given multiple-choice answers, i.e. that this text is a fairy tale, a short story or a poem. Next to the choice, students are asked to write as many arguments as possible why the pupils are assigning the work to this group.

5 Data analysis of the empirical research

18Argument-based descriptions of this family were divided into different categories according to certain features pupils indicated in their answers (relationship between the characters and their behaviour). To begin with, Table 1 provides the most comprehensive examples of theses and arguments, which reflect the main idea of the story.

19We would like to point out that the data in Table 1 demonstrate that eight of the fourth grade pupils (aged 10-11) were able to ground their opinion with arguments and follow the structure of well-argued speech, i.e. they generalize the idea and both evaluate and interpret during pair works. I believe that if there were more tasks that focus on the development of argumentation skills during the school year, the results would be even better. A less complex aspect when children formulate statements and arguments in direct relation to the text is shown in Table 2.

20Connecting a statement to an argument is part of the curriculum, i.e. this is what they have already learned. Table 2 shows good results, because some pairs indicated more than one statement and more than one argument to describe the umbrella family. It is important that pupils found direct relationship between the reasons of characters’ behaviour and its consequences. This analysis demonstrates pupils’ logical thinking, proper skills of text comprehension when direct conclusions are made.

21The relationship of characters (people), their interconnectedness as described by the children is shown in Table 3.

22We would like to emphasize that all the answers given by children that are shown in Table 3 demonstrate that they understood the main idea of the text, which is that the family described in the text is unhappy. Besides, children also show the relationship of one of the characters of the text, namely the child, with the father, and explain why the child is unhappy and what it takes to make him happy (according to the content of the text). This data demonstrates that they put forward the arguments for the main idea of the text, thus they are able to present arguments for the most complex aspects of the text.

23Table 4 shows children’s statements and arguments when they were directly related to the text.

24Three pairs were able to correctly relate the statement with the arguments by pointing to the detail of the text which is not essential. These pupils are able to argue, they think logically, however, they need to continue learning to argue and to focus more on the key message of the text, i.e. the deep meaning of it, because so far they focus on details without demonstrating the problem or the consequence related to these details.

25Pupils were asked to write down as many arguments as they could to justify their choice, and these arguments that the text is a fairy tale are provided in Table 5.

26We can observe very good results in Table 5 because the majority of pupils were able to write down more than one correct argument they observed and emphasized one of the elements of a fairy tale, namely, fictitious talking characters, who in real life are inanimate and do not talk. As many as three pairs were able to generalize this work of fiction by saying that it is a fantasy. I would point out to the fact that some pupils put forward as many as three or even five correct arguments. There was only one wrong answer. This situation reveals that children have the ability to reason and ground their opinion with arguments and proper facts taken from the text.

27The last part of the reflection involved asking children to indicate what was new to them on a sticker. All children who participated in this activity wrote down that they found out what a statement and what an argument is what the word argumentation means. Three children added that they read a very interesting new text that they hadn't known so far, whereas other children said that the lesson was very interesting when they were working in pairs.

Conclusions

28The development of primary schoolchildren’s argumentation skills demonstrates the perception of learning a language (L1) as a whole; it covers language rules and activities to develop linguistic expression. Pupils have to choose proper means of linguistic expression and to make logical connections between thoughts to be able to argue properly . The element of reflection before, during and after the activity is extremely important in activities that aim to develop argumentation skills. This is the way pupils develop not merely cognitive abilities, but metacognitive abilities too, and the teacher can monitor the growth of pupils’ abilities as well as the strengths of the activity to improve when they were working in pairs.

29Qualitative data analysis of empirical research regarding pupils who were learning to formulate a statement and arguments according to a work of fiction, show that some fourth grade pupils are capable of generalizing content. The complexity of arguments these pupils put forward attests that they are able to interpret, evaluate the content of the text, express the main idea and comprehend the deep meaning of the text. The majority of pupils were able to come up with a proper statement and argument for a direct element of the text. It shows that they understood the information given in the text correctly; however, they still need to work on broader generalizations. Moreover, though this activity requires more learners’ efforts for the work to be done correctly, children reported that this activity is interesting and motivates them for learning and reading.