Introduction
p. 11-20
Texte intégral
1Considering literature and the arts through the lens of the humble implies adopting a cross-disciplinary approach. Because it can be associated variously with social class, religion or psychology, the notion of ‘the humble’ lends itself to diverse types of studies and has been of interest both to sociologists and philosophers.
2In literature and the arts, ‘the humble’ is a topic that immediately calls to mind the concerns of the Victorian writers who staged low-ranking characters and figures in many of their works, from Dickens’s Pip to Hardy’s Jude the Obscure, or of painters from the same era, from William Holman Hunt’s The Scapegoat to Ford Madox Brown’s Work. Indeed, the term ‘humble’—from Latin humilis, ‘low, lowly,’ itself from humus ‘ground’—refers to those who are low in rank, quality, or station, who are unimportant and obscure. As such, ‘the humble’ is often used as a euphemism for ‘the poor,’ and refers metonymically to ‘humble origins’ most often indicating a lower-class upbringing.
3As relating to social class and poverty, ‘the humble’ has been studied by historians and sociologists as well as literary critics, and is now the object of renewed interest within ‘Poverty studies.’ Historians such as Gertrude Himmerfarb, who has worked on the Victorian ethos, have shown that literature brings the masses to the fore and shapes social consciousness.1 Sociologists such as Henri Lefebvre have drawn our attention to the humble and/as the everyday, as well as to the power of art to counter it: ‘The quotidian is what is humble and solid, what is taken for granted [. . .] it is undated and (apparently) insignificant; [. . .] it is practically untellable, and it is the ethics underlying routine and the aesthetics of familiar settings.’2
4Concerning 19th- and 20th-century British literature, ‘the humble’ and poverty as a motif have been a constant subject matter (regarding the Victorian Era, see Smith 1980; Williams 1987; Tobin 1993; Lenard 1999; Betensky 2010; for the early twentieth century up to the sixties, see Kumar 1995).3 Recently, in their work on contemporary literature, Barbara Korte and Georg Zipp have shown that, at a time when economics create increasing deprivation and exclusion, ‘literature can (re-) configure how we think, feel and behave in relation to poverty and the poor.’4 Literature can perform ‘cultural work.’5 In other words, and contrary to what E. M. Forster’s narrator claimed in Howards End,6 literature can make poverty thinkable.
5Similarly, contemporary philosophers such as Rancière and Le Blanc are interested in ‘humble’ social, economic and cultural conditions, but favour different names for it: the invisible, the voiceless, the overlooked, the ‘sans-part’ (Rancière), and some have even envisaged the notion through the prism of ‘bare life,’ as delineated by Foucault and Agamben. ‘The Humble,’ like its related terms, is thus becoming a philosophical object.
6Secondly, the etymology of ‘humble’ (humilis) points to other shades of meaning and first of all, to a disposition marked by meekness or modesty in behaviour, attitude, or spirit: ‘being aware of one’s own limitations and weaknesses’ posits ‘the humble’ as a form of ‘humility’ and classifies it as a psychological feature, an awareness of one’s ability to fail, a virtue (lack of false pride) that can at times come close to a disability (as lacking pride where pride might actually be needed). Hence the use of terms such as humbled (whose pride has been curtailed or destroyed), or humbling (as a synonym for humiliating). As such, it has been of interest to psychologists and psychoanalysts.
7Thirdly, and in direct relation to the former definition, ‘the humble’ and its related terms, ‘humility’ and ‘humiliation,’ are redolent of theological associations. Humility is a virtue preached by the church, a profoundly religious notion, particularly connected with Christianity. Pascale Tollance reminds us in her essay that, as Julia Kristeva has highlighted in Pouvoirs de l’horreur, humility can also refer to a religious experience of self-humiliation and self-abnegation, a sacrificial passion that involves self-hatred and may verge on sado-masochism. Kristeva has foregrounded self-abjection as a possible strategy for the subject to come to terms with the abject, and given Christian mysticism as an example.7 As such, ‘humility’ clarifies the link between the state of humbleness and the process of (self-) humiliation; it is connected with a posture of submission to the divine and a dialectics of domination/submission. Humility, associated to self-humiliation and self-abnegation, is predicated on an egocentric/reflexive relation of the self to the self which, according to Pierre Zaoui, is characteristic both of Christian times—as apparent in Aquinas’ Summa Theologica—and Ancient Greece—of Epicurians, Stoicians and Aristotle alike.8 In any case, in this context ‘humility’ has a complex history and has been of interest to philosophers such as Ricœur or Agamben, who are well versed in theology and philosophy. The notion takes on a different colouring in Simone Weil’s analysis, where what obtains is a vision of the humble as operator. Indeed, Weil envisages a process according to which ‘Grace is the law of the descending movement. To lower oneself is to rise in the domain of moral gravity. Moral gravity makes us fall towards the heights.’9 Such a passage intuits what, in others, is translated into the idea of the humble loss of self becoming diluted into complete attention towards the other. In the following lines, as in many other pages, the religious points towards the expression of an ethics of alterity, in which attention or attentiveness is seen as self-effacement, the better to testify to the other’s existence and specificities: ‘ [a] ttention alone—that attention which is so full that the “I” disappears—is required of me. I have to deprive all that I call “I” of the light of my attention and turn it on that which cannot be conceived.’10 Here, humility and the humble paradoxically become ethical forces.
8Lastly, then, the humble clearly applies to the field of ethics, whether they are of the deconstructive type (positing a ceaseless play and slippage, hence a fair degree of epistemological instability) or whether they are more specifically concerned with the field of vulnerability studies that pays attention to the subject’s—or the other’s—limitations. In such instances, it is easy to decipher the enduring influence of the ethical turn in theory, criticism and the arts, and more especially of an ethics of alterity according to which the subject effaces him/herself and whose validity is only warranted by a great measure of passivity and sensibility to the other. The move beyond ontology that is characteristic of the Levinasian vision may be considered an exacerbated vision of the humble as applied to the ethical subject being taken hostage.11 In Martha Nussbaum’s terms, for instance, vulnerability is compounded of the humble, since striving towards the good life implies recognising the power of one’s drives and one’s orectic nature: hence the value—and not merely the function—of one’s exposure to fate and to the other.12 Here again, the humble becomes synonymous with an ethical drive according to which the loss of one’s powers and the consciousness of one’s ontological limitations—hence the recognition of one’s anthropological vulnerability—go along with ethical excellence.
9Novels and works of art in general may display an interest for ‘the humble,’ as relating to the poor (poor characters, poor art forms); to religion (above all to the dialectics of domination/submission, or more especially that of accepting the move towards the ground and earthly limitations the better to have an intuition of the workings of Grace, as indicated above); psychology (as may be the case with the humbling experiences of trauma, a condition that reveals the subject’s own limitations, and more especially the limits of his/her understanding, as indicated in Cathy Caruth’s famous ‘crisis of truth’13); and more generally ethics, and the various branches of the discipline that have accrued over the last few decades (i.e. the ethics of alterity, of vulnerability, and possibly the ethics of care, with a humble attentiveness to caring gestures in favour of the needy other). Such references and fields of investigation weave in the various meanings and connotations of the term.
10We argue that in the course of the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries, artists and writers revisit the term ‘humble’ and, far from treating it as a simple motif, raise it to the status of an aesthetic category. This category may be said to have several functions. First, it can foster a better understanding of fiction, poetry, painting, and their representation of precarious lives through various genres and modes. Secondly, it may draw attention to neglected or depreciated humble novels or art forms (often understood as ‘minor’ because set in the domestic, ‘feminine’ sphere), from printmaking to some instances of kitsch, and literary genres such as fragments, diaries, or the elegiac form, based on the ceaseless yet limited address to the departed, that developed from the Victorian to the contemporary period, through the Edwardian and the modernist eras; and it may interrogate how these works relate to more canonical genres and art forms. Thirdly, this category helps revise assumptions about 19th-, 20th- and 21st-century art and writing and signals to a poetics of the humble. As Angela Locatelli writes in her essay, ‘the humble’ is an ‘experiential category.’
11This category proves indeed particularly relevant to the field of 19th-, 20th- and 21st-century literature and arts. Victorian literature and visual arts are known for their attention to humble characters and for their interest in humility, and Laurence Roussillon-Constanty, whose essay inaugurates this collection, examines how Ruskin’s injunction of humility resonates in the political and aesthetic choices of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Stéphane Sitayeb, focusing on the relationship between an aesthetics of minimalism and a posture of abnegation and religious self-humiliation in Arthur Machen’s The Hill of Dreams (1907), shows a striking instance of the way in which humbleness can inform a fin-de-siècle work. As for modernist literature and arts, they have long been associated with elitism and high-brow preoccupations. Such a construction of modernism, which may have been intimated by the social class many modernist writers belonged to rather than their actual work, has in the last few years been challenged by studies that have, on the one hand, placed middle-brow writers on the map together with high-brow ones and, on the other, pointed out the importance of the ordinary, the everyday and the eventless in a literature of the event (Sayeau, Schoenbach).14 Focusing on ‘the humble’ and humility may be a way to draw attention to such characters as Evelyn or Michael Furey that James Joyce stages in Dubliners—what Pierre Michon would call, as in his eponymous novel, ‘vies minuscules,’ or what Guillaume Le Blanc has in mind when working on Chaplin’s films and the many humble characters, tottering on the brink of visibility, that his shots teem with;15 it may also bring to light the way in which some modernist writers elaborate a poetics of humility, together with, against or away from religious humility. Leila Haghshenas and Xavier Lebrun, examining respectively Leonard Woolf’s The Village in the Jungle and Virginia Woolf’s Jacob Room, thus renew our understanding of modernist narrative technique in an approach which is far from narratology or other formalist approaches. Considering D.H. Lawrence’s treatment of the parable of the Good Samaritan in Aaron Rod, Shirley Bricout examines the tension between the novel’s vulnerable characters and D.H. Lawrence’s resistance to voicing the humble. The category of ‘the humble’ also allows us to draw an updated map of Victorianism and modernism, where the unassuming craft of printmaking, as analysed by Sophie Aymes, features together with Cézanne’s famous yet humble still lifes as highlighted by Claudia Tobin, or where Leonard Woolf’s undervalued Ceylonese novel (Haghshenas) is placed close to Virginia’s more canonical ones (Lebrun). Such a poetics of ‘the humble’ is taken up by contemporary writers and artists, as is apparent in their emphasis on ethics, as José Mari Yebra highlights in his study of Colm Tóibín’s The Testament of Mary, and politics, as is brought forward by Corina Stan in her analysis of Rose Tremain’s novel Restoration and by Laurent Mellet’s reading of Jonathan Coe’s Expo 58. In the works these three authors consider, the humble, whether it is translated in terms of precariousness in its relation to democracy, or in religious terms, allows for the expression of humanism. In Pinter’s ‘Memory Plays,’ where the humble can be delineated as the ‘awareness of one’s ability to fail,’ Adeline Arniac demonstrates that the poetics of the humble takes on the shape of a Sisyphean process of endless inchoation and iteration, since ‘failure is contained in the very attempt at achieving something.’ Here as well, the poetics of the humble is inseparable from a humanist and existentialist vision.
12The humble may also be addressed in relation to gender issues: Barbara Puschmann-Nalenz examines visions of humbled femininity and more strikingly, masculinity in contemporary novels as associated with humble loci, whereas Susana Onega turns the notion inside out and demonstrates the paradox of falsely humble female characters performing the category for empowering purposes in Sarah Waters’ Affinity.
13On the whole, exploring ‘the humble’ and humility in the works of art of the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries puts in the limelight the poor (Thomas Carlyle), the underprivileged, the forgotten, the invisible (in Guillaume Le Blanc’s terms). Concomitantly, it interrogates the authors’, their narrators’ and characters’ relation to the humble, whether it is a disinterested relation, an overbearing one, or a non-existent one. Thus, as Aude Haffen points out, the seemingly modest narrator in Isherwood’s Goodbye to Berlin, whose voice is made bare and impassive by the author, emerges as a key protagonist whose very posture of humbleness is a ‘casual act of resistance’ to the dominant ideological discourses in 1930s Berlin. Likewise, in her essay on precariousness and vulnerability, invisibility and dispossession based on Guillaume Le Blanc’s philosophy, Angela Locatelli explores the shift from ‘humble’ to ‘humbled’ in the ordinary lives described in novels and lyrics of the 1970s onwards, namely those of Fay Weldon and Chris Cleave on the one hand, and Marianne Faithfull and John Lennon, on the other. These various works offer stances of humbleness that are simultaneously ethical and aesthetic, and in these two respects inseparable from resilience and resistance, from the necessarily interconnected ‘critique philosophique’ and ‘critique sociale’ advocated by Le Blanc.
14Through various novels and works of art, the whole volume explores the relation to the humble other; a relation of ignorance, assimilation or mutual acknowledgement, what Guillaume Le Blanc calls ‘translation;’16 a relation in that case marked by humility. It raises the question of the existence of an ethical relation to the humble other. Many of the works studied here develop an art of humility that is far from the humility the believer cultivates in his vertical relation to the divine. It is not a self-sacrificing or self-abnegating feeling, but one that makes the acknowledgement of the other and of the world possible. Through a specific narrator, a singular use of voice and in many other ways, writers and artists stage and develop a relation to the other, make room for the other or let the other speak. Analysing Lynne Reid Banks’s Children at the Gate, Silvia Pellicer demonstrates that the humble as a pathological status can be transmuted both into an aesthetic category through therapeutic writing, and an ethical category through the ability to open oneself to the Other. Similarly, Pascale Tollance demonstrates how the bare and self-effaced narrative voice in Swift’s The Light of Day makes it possible to articulate dispossession, humiliation, and to adumbrate the nothing. Here as well, humility appears as the very process through which infamy can be transmuted into ‘a creative form of effacement.’
15Humility is thus turned into a capacity, so that the value of ‘the humble’ is exposed. Through unassuming postures, characters or narrators forego all sovereignty, all dominating behaviour, eschewing any kind of domination/submission dialectics. Humility thus appears as an ethical and political choice and most of all, as a way of being. Rather than a concept,17 it is an aesthetic quality with ethical, political and pragmatic resonances.
16Such a way of being seems to testify to a paradigmatic shift, or at least a change in episteme according to which, in the late 19th and early 20th century, authors like Maupassant or Zola and their British contemporaries consider life ‘through the commonality of frailty as both vulnerability and social suffering’ (Le Blanc 2007, 57; translation ours). In other terms, one of the modalities of the literary and artistic representation of the humble would rely on a change in the frames of perception and validation. In Le Blanc’s terms, once again, such a shift would contribute to the training of our perception, which is certainly not a natural quality but rather a ‘social activity,’18 so much so that art objects would lead the spectators, audience and readers to perceive and take into account the tiny and invisible so as to re-value them in terms of the humble.
17One step further, the way of being that the texts and art works selected in the following chapters explore and seem to promote is one predicated on the notion of dispossession as ontological precariousness. Athena Athanasiou and Judith Butler give a double meaning to the term when they define dispossession as an economic reality affecting many contemporary citizens (being dispossessed as being deprived of the economic means to lead an ordinary life), but also as an ethical position, being dispossessed referring here to a ‘non sovereign account of agency’ implying a ‘fissuring of the subject’ that constitutes a challenge to the conception of the unitary subject.’19 We would argue that the loss of sovereignty and the opening of the self allow for the emergence of the humble and its representation. Once again, when brought to light, the humble builds up into an ethical force that in turn may gather political leverage when concretely applied to more concrete, collective situations.
18The humble may thus be said to contribute to the definition of an ethics of vulnerability as way of being and praxis. A way of being that sets great store by an ethical inclination, ‘the humble’ could be defined as a condition or operator of responsibility based on ‘an anthropology of vulnerability [hence humility] and incompleteness.’20 Said differently, in the humble begins responsibility. And such responsibility cannot be considered independently of praxis or of a way of acting, since ‘the humble,’ as suggested above, is also a means to be attentive to the other and to modify conditions of perception (Le Blanc 2009, 124). Being humble, hence becoming effaced in front of the other and various situations in which the other is implicated, allows for a consideration of singularities opening the door to Ricœurian ‘reconnaissance’ (Le Blanc 2014, 137). In other terms humility as a modality of invisibility is the condition of appearance of a ‘precarious witness’ (Le Blanc 2014, 137; translation ours) whose function it is to account for the other’s—and the world’s—neediness and precariousness.
19On the whole, the volume comes as a complement to our previous work on ethics, literature and arts,21 and reads as an invitation to crisscross disciplines, reveal the depth of literature, show its philosophical relevance, its ethical and political dimension and its connection to life.
Notes de bas de page
1 Gertrude Himmelfarb, Victorian Minds (New York: Knopf, 1968); The Idea of Poverty: England in the Early Industrial Age (New York: Knopf, 1984); On Looking into the Abyss: Untimely Thoughts on Culture and Society (New York: Knopf, 1994); The Moral Imagination: From Edmund Burke to Lionel Trilling (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006).
2 Henri Lefebvre, Everyday Life in the Modern World, trans. Sacha Rabinovitch (1947; London: Continuum, 2002) 24.
3 Sheila Smith, The Other Nation: The Poor in English Novels of the 1840s and 1850s (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980); A. Susan Williams, The Rich Man and the Diseased Poor in Early Victorian Literature (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); Beth Fowkes Tobin, Superintending the Poor: Charitable Ladies and Paternal Landlords in British Fiction, 1770–1860 (New Haven: Yale UP, 1993); Mary Lenard, Preaching Pity: Dickens, Gaskell, and Sentimentalism in Victorian Culture (Frankfurt am Maine: Peter Lang, 1999); Carolyn Betensky, Feeling for the Poor: Bourgeois Compassion, Social Action, and the Victorian Novel (Charlottesville: U of Virginia P, 2010); Krishan Kimar, ‘Versions of the Pastoral: Poverty and the Poor in English Fiction from the 1840s to the 1950s,’ Journal of Historical Sociology 8.1 (1995): 1–35.
4 Barbara Korte and Georg Zipp, Poverty in Contemporary Literature (Palgrave, Pivot, 2014) 3.
5 Jane Tompkins, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790–1860 (Oxford: OUP, 1985).
6 ‘We are not concerned with the very poor. They are unthinkable, and only to be approached by the statistician or the poet.’ E. M. Forster, Howards End (1910; London: Penguin, 2000) 38.
7 Julia Kristeva, Pouvoirs de l’horreur (Paris: Seuil, 1980).
8 Pierre Zaoui, La discrétion. Ou l’art de disparaître (Paris: Autrement, 2013).
9 Simone Weil, ‘Gravity and Grace,’ Gravity and Grace (1947; London and New York: Routledge, 2003), Kindle ebook file, n.p.
10 Simone Weil, ‘Attention and Will,’ Gravity and Grace (1947; London and New York: Routledge, 2003), Kindle ebook file, n.p.
11 Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being, or, Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (1978; Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991).
12 Martha Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness. Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy (1986; Cambridge: CUP, 2001) 20.
13 Cathy Caruth, ‘Introduction,’ Trauma: Explorations in Memory, ed. Cathy Caruth (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995) 8.
14 Michel Sayeau, Against the Event: The Everyday and Evolution of Modernist Narrative (Oxford: OUP, 2013); Lisi Schoenbach, Pragmatic Modernism (Oxford: OUP, 2012).
15 Pierre Michon, Vies minuscules (1984; Paris: Folio Gallimard, 1996); Guillaume Le Blanc, L’insurrection des vies minuscules (Montrouge: Bayard, 2014).
16 Guillaume Le Blanc, Vies ordinaires, vies précaires (Paris: Seuil, 2007) 18–9. Translation ours.
17 As such it is close to ‘discretion’ which, as Pierre Zaoui argues, is ‘a matter of vision rather than theory’ (la discrétion ‘est une affaire de vision et non de théorie,’ translation ours).
18 Guillaume Le Blanc, L’invisibilité sociale (Paris: PUF, 2009) 13. Translation ours.
19 Judith Butler and Athena Athanasiou, Dispossession. The Performative in the Political (Cambridge: Polity, 2013) ix.
20 Nathalie Maillard, La Vulnérabilité. Une nouvelle catégorie morale? (Genève: Labor et Fides, 2011) 336.
21 Ethics of Alterity, Confrontation and Responsibility in 19th- to 21st-century British Literature, ed. with an introduction by Christine Reynier and Jean-Michel Ganteau (Montpellier: Presses universitaires de la Méditerranée, ‘Horizons anglophones’/Present Perfect, 2013); Ethics of Alterity, Confrontation and Responsibility in 19th- to 21st-century British Arts. ed. with an introduction by Christine Reynier and Jean-Michel Ganteau, (Montpellier: Presses universitaires de la Méditerranée, ‘Horizons anglophones’/Present Perfect, 2015).
Auteurs
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Isabelle Brasme
University Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3—EMMA, France.
Isabelle Brasme is Senior Lecturer in English Literature at the University of Nîmes, France, and a member of the EMMA research centre at the University Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3. She has published extensively on Ford Madox Ford and has recently published a monographentitled: Parade’s End de Ford Madox Ford: vers une esthétique de la crise (PULM, 2016). Her research focuses on modernism, the relationship between modernism and tradition, and the question of canonicity. -
Jean-Michel Ganteau
University Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3—EMMA, France
Jean-Michel Ganteau is Professor of British Literature at the Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3. He is the editor of the journal Études britanniques contemporaines. He is the author of two monographs on David Lodge and Peter Ackroyd and of a book-length study, The Ethics and Aesthetics of Vulnerability in Contemporary British Fiction (Routledge, 2015). He is also the editor, with Christine Reynier, of six volumes of essays on the themes of impersonality and emotion, autonomy and commitment and the ethics of alterity (PULM). He has also edited several volumes of essays with Susana Onega: Trauma and Ethics in Contemporary British Literature (Rodopi, 2010), Trauma and Romance in Contemporary British Fiction (Routledge, 2013), and Contemporary Trauma Narratives: Liminality and the Ethics of form (Routledge, 2014).He has published extensively on contemporary British ϧction, with a special interest in the ethics of aρects (as manifest in such aesthetic resurgences and concretions as the baroque, kitsch, camp, melodrama, romance), trauma criticism and theory and the ethics of vulnerabilty in France and abroad. -
Christine Reynier
University Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3—EMMA, France
Christine Reynier is Professor of British Literature at the University Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3. She has published extensively on major modernist writers, edited books and journals on Woolf (Journal of the Short Story in English 50, July 2008) and published a monograph Virginia Woolf’s Ethics of the Short Story (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). She is also a member of the ENSFR network (European Network for Short Fiction Research) and recently co-edited Reframing the Modernist Short Story (JSSE 64, Spring 2015). She is the editor, with Jean-Michel Ganteau, of six volumes of essays on the themes of impersonality and emotion, autonomy and commitment and the ethics of alterity in British Literature and Arts (PULM). In 2013, she organized, with B. Coste and C. Delyfer, a European Science Foundation Workshop in Montpellier that led to the publication of Re-connecting Aestheticism with Modernism (Routledge, 2016).
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