URL originale : https://books.openedition.org/pufc/29987

Description of frozen nominal sequences in Korean in an electronic dictionary
p. 77-99
Résumé
A machine-readable dictionary of frozen nominal sequences, when it is structurally consistent and equipped with systematic linguistic properties, is much more useful in various aspects than a simple list of nouns. In this paper, we describe fundamental information in an electronic dictionary of frozen nominal sequences in Korean. In each section, we will show why such information is chosen and how we describe it systematically and coherently in an electronic dictionary.
Texte intégral
Introduction
1Free nominal sequences obey ordinary combination rules for nouns in Korean whereas frozen nominal sequences are semantically and/or syntactically noncompositional. To distinguish frozen nominal sequences from free nominal sequences, we established several useful linguistic criteria of frozenness as presented in Bae Sun-Mee (2001a). Once we distinguish frozen nominal sequences from free nominal sequences, frozen nominal sequences may be classified into three categories according to typographic conventions1:
(i) Compact nouns: If a nominal sequence does not contain either any obligatory spacing or any optional spacing, we call it a compact noun (i.e., kkotbat “a flower garden”).
(ii) Frozen nouns with optional spacing: If a nominal sequence contains at least one optional spacing without any obligatory spacing, we call it a frozen noun with optional spacing (i.e., gukhwoe uiwon “a member of the National Assembly”) .
(iii) Frozen nouns with obligatory spacing: If a nominal sequence contains at least one obligatory spacing, we call it a frozen noun with obligatory spacing (i.e., saeppalgan geojinmal “a downright lie”).
2Finally, we describe information included in the electronic dictionary for natural language applications. To construct a useful dictionary of frozen nominal sequences, we propose seven kinds of fundamental information:
Spacing information,
Inflectional Information,
Origin,
Grammatical category,
Morpho-syntactic Information,
Syntactic Information, and
Semantic Information.
3Now, we will show in each section why such information is chosen and how we describe it in an electronic dictionary of frozen nominal sequences.
1 – Spacing Information
4Spacing information plays an important role for automatic recognition of Korean texts, since spacing rules in Korean are quite flexible compared to English or French. Despite several major regulations of the Korean Ministry of Education (1988), typographic variations in details are frequent. Moreover, there are individual typographic variations in writing. The automatic recognition of frozen nominal sequences requires describing them in an electronic dictionary according to their structure and typographic conventions as regards spacing.
5In Bae Sun-Mee (2001a), we examined discrepancies among editorial dictionaries, and between editorial dictionaries and texts. By comparing five editorial dictionaries published since 1990, we found out numerous differences. We also discovered cases where actual typographic forms vary in texts, even when there is an agreement in spacing conventions between dictionaries. A result from the KAIST Corpus2 is shown below:

6For example, the nominal sequences dotoli namu (acorn - tree = oak) and so-namu (pine - tree = pine) are compound nouns in traditional linguistics. However, dotoli namu (underlined occurrences above) is printed without any blank in all commercial dictionaries, but it occurs with blanks in texts. The electronic dictionary should not neglect this possibility. The number of syllables plays a role: when a word is fixed with a monosyllabic word, it contains no spacing in general like the example so-namu in the boxes above. In case of discordance between usage and the grammarians, one can analyze these forms as user errors or acceptable alternatives. However, to recognize the forms with a space and their variant forms without any space, we need a dictionary, which specifies the different spacing possibilities. We code by “^” the position of optional spacing observed in texts or in editorial dictionaries, by a blank the position of obligatory spacing:
(1) a. kkot-galu “pollen”
b. gukchaek ^ eunhaeng “a government-run bank”
c. saeppalgan geojinmal “a downright lie”
2 – Inflectional Information
7For automatic recognition, an electronic dictionary of frozen nominal sequences must also include inflectional information since inflected forms of frozen nominal sequences occur in texts3. Therefore, what is required is an electronic dictionary of inflected forms of frozen nominal sequences. For efficiency, we propose two distinct data sets: one for frozen nominal sequences using list or graphs and the other for nominal postpositions using graphs. The two data sets are merged into a single dictionary through the aid of inflectional codes attached to each frozen nominal sequence and of the inflection module in INTEX.
8To construct an electronic dictionary of inflected forms of frozen nominal sequences, we have to consider combinatorial restrictions between nouns and nominal postpositions. We observe two kinds of combinatorial restrictions depending whether they are based on phonological context or semantic features4. Frozen nominal sequences are classified according to combinatorial restrictions with nominal postpositions5:
N11: end with any consonant except l, (+Hum, +Anm, +CollHum) (3500 sequences of nominal postpositions)
N12: end with any consonant except l, (+InstHum) (1700)
N13: end with any consonant except l, (+Plt, +Inanim) (2000)
N21: end with l, (+Hum, +Anm, +CollHum) (3500)
N22: end with l, (+InstHum) (1700)
N23: end with l, (+Plt, +Inanim) (2000)
N31: end with a vowel, (+Hum, +Anm, +CollHum) (3500)
N32: end with a vowel, (+InstHum) (1700)
N33: end with a vowel, (+Plt, +Inanim) (2000)
9In the name of each class, the first digit stands for the phonological condition and the second for a semantic feature. The number in parentheses indicates the number of postposition sequences for one noun of each class. For example, Class N11 covers all frozen nominal sequences that end with any consonant except l and that semantically are human nouns, collective human nouns or animal nouns:
(2) geomchal ^ chongjang, N11 “the Public Procurator General”
10The number of sequences of postpositions for a noun of Class N11 is 3500. From an inflectional code like N11 or N33 in our dictionary and with the inflectional module of INTEX ( “Inflection”)6, we can generate all the possible inflectional forms of frozen nominal sequences. This function performs automatic inflection by calling Finite State Transducers (FST), which contain nominal postpositions7. The name of the transducer is the same as the name of the code associated with each entry of frozen nominal sequence. To inflect nominal sequences in Korean, the “Inflection” module in INTEX is sufficient to generate all types of frozen nominal sequences: the nominal postposition or the sequence of nominal postpositions is combined with the last syllable of frozen nominal sequences, and the form of the last syllable is not modified.
3 – Origin
11The Korean lexicon is subdivided into three parts according to the origin of words: proper Korean vocabulary (pk), sino-Korean vocabulary (sk)8, vocabulary borrowed from other languages like English, French, etc. (bor), and mixed vocabulary (Mix) i.e. combinations like sk-pk, bor-sk, etc.:
(3) a. gajeong jubu (sk sk) (NN) (home - wife = a housewife)
b. daechu namu (pk pk) (NN) (Chinese date - tree = a Chinese date tree)
c. gaseu boilleo (bor bor) (NN) (gas - boiler = a gas boiler)
d. gaein taeksi (sk bor) (NN) (individual - taxi = an owner-operator taxi)
e. chong-al taeksi Mix (sk-pk)-bor (NN) (ball - taxi = a dangerous taxi which runs at high speed at night)
12For 45000 frozen nominal sequences with optional spacing, we counted 80 % sk, 6 % pk, 13 % bor, and 1 % Mix9. The origin of Korean vocabulary is important to identify the exact meaning of a word. For example, the form susul can have three different meanings as shown in (4):
(4) a. susul
(pk) “stamen”
a’. su-sul(Mix (sk-pk)) “fringe”
a’’. su-sul(sk) “operation”
13The origins pk, Mix (sk-pk) and sk of three entries susul separate three different meanings. We sometimes encounter Chinese characters, but only for sk words. When they are used, the Chinese characters either follow sino-Korean words in Korean alphabet (Type A) or are used instead of them (Type B):
14Type A10.

15Type B11.

16Type A is much more frequent than Type B. However, even to process a text of Type B, obviously the dictionary has to include the form in the Korean alphabet to normalize them to proper Korean forms.
4 – Grammatical category of each element
17In our electronic dictionary, we codified grammatical categories such as N (Noun), A (Adjective), D (Determiner), B (adverb)12, X (element without any grammatical category), etc.
18We attach the label X to words when none of the usual grammatical categories characterizes their syntactic behavior. Among 45000 frozen nouns with optional spacing, 15 % include at least one X (i.e., XN, XX, NX, XNN, etc.) in our dictionary. For example, the form tongsok “popular”, labeled as X in our dictionary, is a root without any syntactic autonomy while it has a semantic content and some morphological similarity with a noun. Such forms are usually labeled as roots or nouns in traditional grammar and editorial dictionaries. Most X’s are sino-Korean or borrowed words and have no syntactic autonomy in the Korean system, although they have it in their original languages. For the case of sino-Korean words, each Chinese ideogram is associated with a monosyllabic form and a meaning, but in general it does not have any syntactic autonomy in the Korean system. For example, ip “enter” is an autonomous verb and seong “castle” an autonomous noun in Chinese, but none of these forms has any syntactic autonomy in Korean13:
(5) a. *ip-i (*X-Nmtv = *enter-Nmtv)
b. *seong-i (*X-Nmtv = *castle-Nmtv)
19Sino-Korean nouns are in general formed by a combination of two ideograms. These disyllabic forms are usually autonomous nouns in Korean.
c. ipseong-i (XX-Nmtv = N-Nmtv) (entering into a castle-Nmtv)
20Some disyllabic sino-Korean forms can also be a non-autonomous X’s14:
(6) a. *min-i (*X-Nmtv = *people-Nmtv)
b. *ju-ga (*X-Nmtv = *master-Nmtv)
c. *minju-ga (*X-Nmtv = *democratic-Nmtv)
21The disyllabic X obtains its syntactic autonomy through the combination with other elements such as nouns or syntactic derivational suffixes.
d. minju jeongchi-ga (XN-Nmtv = N-Nmtv) (democratic politics-Nmtv)
e. minju-seong-i (X-sfn-Nmtv = N-Nmtv) (democratic - property-Nmtv = democracy-Nmtv)
22There are also many borrowed words that have no syntactic autonomy in the Korean system such as balokeu “baroque”, beseuteu “best”, seleo “seller”15, etc. However, other borrowed words like ladio “radio”, keopi “coffee”, keomputeo “computer”, etc. keep their syntactic autonomy and syntactically behave as a noun in the Korean system.
(7) a. *balokeu-ga (*X-Nmtv = *baroque-Nmtv)
b. balokeu eumak-i (XN-Nmtv = N-Nmtv = baroque music-Nmtv)
c. (ladio + keopi + keomputeo)-ga (N-Nmtv = (radio + coffee + computer)- Nmtv)
23As for typographic conventions, when an X is combined with derivational suffixes like in (8a) or monosyllabic nouns like in (8b), there is no space between them. Therefore, the examples below are compact nouns:
(8) a. minju-seong (X-sfn = N) (democratic - property = democracy)
b. heuksa-byeong (X-N = N) (pest - disease = the pest)
24When X’s are combined with nouns with two or more syllables, spacing between X and the noun is optional. There are three types of X that can be elements of frozen nouns with optional spacing:
Type A. X (-jeokin + *-han + E) N
Type B. X (*-jeokin + -han + E) N
Type C. X (*-jeokin + *-han + E) N
25- jeokida and -hada in X-jeokida “be like X” and X-hada “be X” are syntactic derivational suffixes, and -n in -jeokin and -han is a determinative suffix. Here are examples of Type A.
(9) a. tongsokjeok-i-n (chaek + naeyong + sasil ) (popular-be-dsf (book + content + fact) = popular (book + content +fact))
b. chaek-i tongsokjeok-i-da book-Nmtv popular-be-Ts (The book is popular)
c. *tongsok (chaek + naeyong + sasil) (*X N) popular (book + content + fact)
26The sequences of (9a) are free nominal sequences with underlying sentence (9b), but the omission of -jeokin is not allowed (9c).
27Whereas (10a) is a free nominal sequence, (10b) is a frozen noun. Semantically, it seems at first sight that the meaning of (10b) can be deduced from each element’s meaning. However, syntactically (10b) has no underlying sentence.
(10) a. tongsokjeok-i-n soseol (popular-be-dsf - novel = a popular novel)
a’. soseol-i tongsokjeok-i-da novel-Nmtv popular-be-Ts (The novel is popular)
b. tongsok soseol (X N) (popular - novel = a light novel)
b’. *soseol-i tongsok-i-da *novel-Nmtv popular-be-Ts
28We observe a subtle nuance between (10a) and (10b): while (10a) may refer to any novel with some popularity, (10b) denotes generically a genre of novel. Therefore, the frozen noun tongsok soseol in (10b) satisfies the sentence “XN is a (N + type of N)” in which X specifies the kind of novel and is a sub-classifier for the subsequent noun:
c. tongsokjeokin soseol-eun (soseol + *soseol-ui han jangleu-i-da popular novel-Aux (novel +*novel-Gen a genre))-be-Ts (A popular novel is a (novel + *genre of novel))
c’. tongsok soseol-eun (soseol + soseol-ui han jangleu-i-da light novel-Aux (novel +novel-Gen a genre))-be-Ts (A light novel is a (novel + genre of novel))
29Consider examples of type B:
(11) a. ganglyeok-ha-n (gundae + gyeongchal) (strong-be-dsf (army + police))
b. gyeongchal-i ganglyeok-ha-da police-Nmtv strong- be-Ts (The police are strong)
c. *ganglyeok (gundae + gyeongchal) (*X N) *strong (army + police)
30The examples in (11a) are free nominal sequences with underlying sentence. The form without -han is not acceptable in (11c).
31While (12a) is a free nominal sequence, (12b) is a frozen noun.
(12) a. ganglyeok-ha-n jeopchakje (strong-be-dsf glue)
b. ganglyeok jeopchakje (XN) (strong - glue = a quick-drying glue)
32The frozen noun without –han has no underlying sentence in (12b’).
a’. jeopchakje-ga ganglyeok-ha-da glue-Nmtv strong-be-Ts (The glue is strong)
b’. *jeopchakje-ga ganglyeok-i-da *glue-Nmtv strong-be-Ts
33X is a sub-classifier for the subsequent noun:
c. ganglyeokhan jeopchakje-neun (jeopchakje + *jeopchakje-ui han yuhyeong)- i-da
strong glue-Aux (glue +*glue-Gen a type)-be-Ts
(A strong glue is a (glue + type of glue)).
c’. ganglyeok jeopchakje-neun (jeopchakje + jeopchakje-ui han yuhyeong)-i-da quick-drying glue-Aux (glue +glue-Gen a type)-be-Ts (A quick drying glue is a (glue + type of glue)).
34X’s of Type C are not compatible with any suffix; they obtain their syntactic autonomy only by combination with other nouns. For example:
(13) a. munmin jeongbu (X N)
(civilian - government = a civilian government)
b.*jeongbu-ga munmin-i-da
*government-Nmtv civilian-be-Ts
c. munmin jeongbu-neun (jeongbu + jeongbu-ui han yuhyeong)-i-da
civilian government-Aux (government + government-Gen a type)-be-Ts (A civilian government is a (government + type of a government)).
35X has no predicative value in (13a) and the sequence also satisfies the criteria “XN is a (N + type of N)” in (13c).
36We conclude that all types A, B and C of X have common syntactic properties: X cannot be used predicatively without any derivational suffix, functions as a sub-classifier of subsequent noun, and accepts the criteria “XN is a (N + type of N)”. Therefore, any XN sequence is syntactically frozen.
37Grammatical categories enable us to specify some instances of lexical ambiguity. The form gajang is lexically ambiguous:
(14) a. gajang
(pk) B “most, extremely”
b. gajang(sk) N “the head of a family”
c. gajang(sk) N “disguise”
38These words exemplify two types of ambiguity. The first type is connected to differences in grammatical categories and origins as shown in the comparison between (14a) and (14b). Second type of ambiguity is between (14b) and (14c) which have the same grammatical category and origin. The ambiguity in this case is related to the difference in the Chinese characters. If this form is written in Chinese characters, this ambiguity can be removed with a description of Chinese forms. Otherwise, this ambiguity can be removed by syntactic parsing using linguistic tags attached to each entry: a semantic tag Hum for (14b) and a syntactic tag PRED for (14c) can serve to identify them16.
5 – Semantic information
5.1 – Human, animal and plant
39The distinction between human nouns, animal nouns and plant nouns is very important for the syntactic description of a lexicon-grammar and for the combination with certain case postpositions.
40We semantically classify frozen nominal sequences with three formal criteria.
Compatibility with Postp.e
41The postpositions -ege, -hante and -e are the three alternatives of the canonical form < -e>.
(15) a. Ina-ga i (chingu + wonsungi)- (ege + hante+*e) chaek-leul ju-eot-da Ina-Nmtv this (friend + monkey)- (Postp.e+Postp.e+*Postp.e) book-Acc give-Mpas-Ts
(Ina gave a book to this (friend + monkey))
b. Ina-ga i (namu + takja)- (*ege+*hante+e) nakseo-leul ha-yeot-da Ina-Nmtv this (tree + table)- (*Postp.e +*Postp.e + Postp.e) scribble-Acc make-Mpas-Ts
(Ina made scribbling on this (tree + table)) (Bae, 2001b)
42The compatibility of nouns with the postpositions -ege and -e enables us to distinguish human (Hum) and animal (Anm) from plant (Plt) and other inanimate (Inanim) nouns. If the noun is compatible with -ege or -hante, it is a human or animal noun. If the noun is compatible only with -e, it is an inanimate or plant noun.
Question in nugu (whom) and mueot (what)
43If the noun in subject or direct complement position answers to the interrogative pronoun nugu (whom?), it is a human noun. If the noun in the same position answers to mueot (what?), it is a non-human noun.
(16) a. Q: eoje, Minu-ga hakgyo-eseo (nugu+*mueot)-leul bo-at-dago? yesterday, Minu-Nmtv school-Postp.eseo (whom +*what)-Acc see-Mpas-Tsi?
(Yesterday, whom did Minu see in school?)
R: eoje, Minu-ga hakgyo-eseo chingu-leul bo-at-da
yesterday, Minu-Nmtv school-Postp.eseo friend-Acc see-Mpas-Ts
(Yesterday, Minu saw his friend in school)
b. Q: Minu-ga geoli-eseo (*nugu + mueot)-leul bo-at-dago?
Minu-Nmtv street-Postp.eseo (*whom + what)-Acc see-MpasTsi ?
(What did Minu see in the street?)
R: Minu-ga geoli-eseo (gae+ namu+jip)-eul bo-at-da
Minu-Nmtv street-Postp.eseo (dog + tree + house)-Acc see-Mpas-Ts
(Minu saw a (dog +tree + house) in street)
Co-occurrence with noun classifiers
44As a last criterion, we examine the co-occurrence with noun classifiers17. For example, human nouns can have myeong, in or bun (unit of person) as classifiers. Animal nouns are compatible with su, mali (unit of animal) and plant noun with songi (bunch) or geulu (tree).
(17) a. chingu daseot myeong (friend five Nclas [person] = five friends)
b. tokki se mali (rabbit three Nclas [animal] = three rabbits)
c. podonamu du geulu (vine two Nclas [plante] = two vine trees)
5.2 – Collective human nouns and institutional human nouns
45We distinguish two kinds of collective human nouns depending on the combination with nominal postpositions: institutional human nouns (company) and other collective human nouns (people). The nominal postposition -eseo is a nominative only with institutional collective human nouns18. In the dictionary, we codify the former as InstHum and the latter as CollHum.
(18) a. weonsi minjok- (i +*eseo) geu il-e gaeipha-yeot-da
primitive people- (Nmtv +*Nmtv) this affair-Postp.e intervene-MpasTs
(A primitive people intervened in this affair)
b. gongsu bubae- (ga + eseo) geu il-e gaeipha-yeot-da
airlift troop- (Nmtv+Nmtv) ce affair-Postp.e intervenir-Mpas-Ts
(The airlift troop intervened in this affair) (Bae, 2001b)
46For postposition <-e>, collective human nouns are combined with - ege and -hante like other human nouns, whereas institutional human nouns are combined with -e.
(19) a. daetonglyeong-i weonsi minjok- (ege+ hante+*e) hanguk munhwajae-leul ju-eot-da
president-Nmtv primitive people- (Postp.e + Postp.e+*Postp.e) Korea (cultural properties)-Acc give- Mpas-Ts
(The president gave Korean cultural properties to a primitive people)
b. daetonglyeong-i gongsu budae- (*ege +*hante+ e) keun seonmul-eul hasaha-eot-da
president-Nmtv airlift troop- (*Postp.e +*Postp.e + Postp.e) big gift-Acc grant-Mpas-Ts
(The president granted a big gift to the airlift troop) (Bae, 2001b)
6 – Morpho-syntactic Information: Predicative noun
6.1 – Definitions
47Within the framework of lexicon-grammar19, the study of predicative nouns is motivated by the fact that many substantives serve as predicates. In the next sentence, nonjaeng (quarrel) functions as a predicate and nonjaeng-eul hada (quarrel) is semantically equivalent to a verb nonjaenghada (quarrel) with two arguments.
N0 W Npred-Acc hada
= N0 W Npred-hada
(20) a. Mia-ga Ina-wa nonjaeng-eul ha-nda
Mia-Nmtv Ina-Postp.wa quarrel-Acc make-Ts
(Mia has a quarrel with Ina)
b. Mia-ga Ina-wa nonjaeng-ha-nda
Mia-Nmtv Ina-Postp.wa quarrel-Ts
(Mia quarrels with Ina)
48In this elementary sentence, the noun nonjaeng plays the role of the semantic predicate. The selectional restrictions on semantic arguments do not depend on the verb hada but on the substantive nonjaeng. This type of verb is called support verb: it is semantically empty and is used as a grammatical support. It is a simple carrier of the morphology of verbal conjugation (for example, mood, tense, aspect, etc). A simple sentence with a support verb (20a) can undergo relativation (20c) and a reduction of relative clause by the rule [Reduction of support verb], which forms a noun phrase (20d). These are typical syntactic properties of predicative nouns.
[Relativation]
c. [Mia-ga Ina-wa ha-n nonjaeng-i] Ina-leul hwanage ha-yeot-da
[Mia-Nmtv Ina-Postp.wa make-dsf quarrel-Nmtv] Ina-Acc make angry-Mpas-Ts
( [The quarrel that Mia had with Ina] made Ina angry)
[Reduction of support verb]
d. [Mia-ui Ina-wa-ui nonjaeng-i] Ina-leul hwanage ha-yeot-da
[Mia-Gen Ina-Gen quarrel-Nmtv] Ina-Acc make angry-Mpas-Ts ( [The quarrel of Mia with Ina] made Ina angry)
6.2 – Predicative frozen nouns
49Within the framework of simple sentence, frozen nouns behave, with respect to support verbs, in the same way as compact nouns do. Among predicative frozen nouns (PREDFN) predicativity is, in general, connected to the predicativity of head nouns. PREDFN can be subdivided into three categories: nouns associated with verbal expressions by nominalization, nouns whose only head noun is morpho-syntaxically associated with a verb, and nouns that do not have any associated verbal construction.
PREDFN (=: V-n)
50PREDFN’s associated with verbal constructions are cases of nominalization of verbal expressions, either proper Korean, or sino-Korean.
(21) a. Ina-ga mulgunamu-leul soe-nda
Ina-Nmtv handstand-Acc make-Ts
(Ina does a handstand)
= b. Ina-ga mulgunamu seogi-leul ha-nda
Ina-Nmtv (doing a handstand)-Acc make-Ts
(Ina does a handstand)
51The example (21a) is a frozen verb phrase (mulgunamu- (Acc + E) seoda) and in (21b) the verb phrase is nominalized with the suffix of nominalization -gi. The frozen noun (V-n) of (21b) can be combined with the suffix -hada, which produces the following equivalent sentence:
(21) c. Ina-ga mulgunamu seogi-ha-nda
Ina-Nmtv (doing a handstand)-make-St (Ina does a handstand)
52The number of examples of this type among predicative frozen nouns is quite limited. Some sino-Korean frozen phrases with four syllables belong to this type of PREDFN (=: V-n):
(22) a. Ina-ga sinbunim-kke gobaek seongsa-leul ha-nda
Ina-Nmtv confessor-Postp.e penance-Acc do-Ts
(Ina does penance to a confessor)
b. Ina-ga sinbunim-kke gobaek seongsa-ha-nda
Ina-Nmtv confessor-Postp.e (do penance)-Ts
(Ina does penance to a confessor)
c. *Ina-ga sinbunim-kke seongsa-ha-nda
*Ina-Nmtv confessor-Postp.e (religious rite)-do-Ts
d. Ina-ga sinbunim-kke gobaek-eul ha-nda
Ina-Nmtv confessor-Postp.e confession-Acc make-Ts
(Ina makes a confession to a confessor)
53The meaning of gobaek seongsa “confession” - “religious rite” = “penance” (in the religious meaning) is not computable from the meaning of its elements. (22d) is an acceptable sentence, but the meaning is different: the predicate has no religious meaning.
PREDFNHN
54Now, we will consider the PREDFN’s whose head noun is morpho-syntactically associated with a verbal structure. Most of these PREDFN’s are sino-Korean and they are numerous. Here are sino-Korean examples with structures XN and N1N2:
(23) a. Minu-ga gukjegyeolhon-eul ha-nda
Minu-Nmtv international marriage-Acc get-Ts
(Minu gets married to a foreigner)
a’. Minu-ga gyeolhon-eul ha-nda
Minu-Nmtv marriage-Acc get-Ts
(Minu gets married)
= a’’. Minu-ga gyeolhon-ha-nda
Minu-Nmtv marry-Ts
(Minu gets married)
55In (23a), gukje “international”, which is an element without grammatical category (X), functions as a sub-classifier for the subsequent noun gyeolhon “marriage”. gyeolhon is an Npred (=: V-n) with verb support -hada.
b.jikwon-deul-i dansiktujaeng-eul ha-nda
employee-Mplu-Nmtv (hunger strike)-Acc make-Ts
(The employees are on a hunger strike)
b’.jikwon-deul-i tujaeng-eul ha-nda
employee-Mplu-Nmtv strike-Acc make-Ts
(The employees are on strike)
= b’’. jikwon-deul-i tujaeng-ha-nda
employee-Mplu-Nmtv make a strike-Ts
(The employees are on strike)
56In (23b), dansik (N1) plays the role of a sub-classifier for tujaeng (N2). X Npred and N Npred can usually be abbreviated in Npred. As we see in the examples of (23a’)- (23a’’) and (23b’)- (23b’’), predicativity is connected to the predicativity of head nouns.
57In French (A. Monceaux, 1993), the compound nouns NA of the type Npred N-a, where N-a20 functions as a sub-classifier of Npred, can be abbreviated into Npred. It seems to us that, in Korean, the frozen nouns with optional spacing of type N Npred or X Npred, where N and X function like a sub-classifier of Npred, can also be abbreviated into Npred.
Residual PREDFN’s
58These PREDFN’s are not morpho-syntactically associated with verbal expressions and their head noun is not associated with a verb. They can be used with support verbs like danghada “to receive” or jeojileuda “to commit”.
(24) a. Minu-ga gangdo salinjoe-leul jeojill-eot-da
Minu-Nmtv (burglary and murder)-Acc commit-Mas-St
(Minu commited a burglary and murder)
59Their head nouns (i.e., salinjoe “a criminal murder”) can be predicative but are not associated with a verb:
b.*Minu-ga gangdo salinjoe-leul ha-yeot-da
*Minu-Nmtv (burglary and murder)-Acc make-Mpas-St
c.*Minu-ga gangdo salinjoe-ha-yeot-da
*Minu-Nmtv (burglary and murder)-make-Mpas-Ts
7 – Sub-classifier function of N1 in N1N2 and of X in XN
60The criterion N1N2 is (N2 + a type of N2) is used for identification of frozen nouns (Bae Sun-Mee, 2001a). We also observed the sub-classifier function of X in XN in Section 5. We codify this information as below:
a. +12 (N1N2 is an N1 and N1N2 is an N2)
b. +1 (N1N2 is an N1 but *N1N2 is an N2)
c. +2 (*N1N2 is an N1 but N1N2 is an N2)
d. +0 (*N1N2 is an N1 and * N1N2 is an N2)
e. +2 (XN is an N)
f. +0 (*XN is an N)
g. +0 (*X1X2 is an X2)
h. +1 (NX is an N)
61We show the examples:
(25) a. daehap jogae, N+NN+12 (clam - shellfish = a clam)
b. iut sachon, N+NN+1 | (neighbor - cousin = a good neighbor) |
c. chuli soseol, N+NN+2 | (reasoning - novel = detective story) |
d. jigak daejang, N+NN+0 | (being late - leader = a person who always |
e. minju jeongchi, N+XN+2 | (democratic - politics = democratic politics) |
f. gagyeog bunja, N+XN+0 | (radical - element = an extremist) |
g. beseuteu seleo, N+XX+0 | (best - seller = best seller) |
h. bitamin di, N+NX+ 1 | (vitamin - D = vitamin D) |
62This information will obviously be useful for information retrieval or key-word extraction by showing the head noun in each sequence.
Conclusion
63We proposed seven kinds of fundamental information for Korean frozen nominal sequences in an electronic dictionary. For automatic recognition, spacing and inflectional information is required. The information on origin and grammatical category serve to separate homonyms. Semantic information plays a very important role as regards combinatorial restrictions with nominal postpositions. Predicative (compact or frozen) nouns, which function as semantic predicates in sentences, require a separate description of their syntactic behaviors in a lexicon-grammar. Syntactic information such as the fact that the first element functions as a sub-classifier in N1N2 or XN structures will be useful for information retrieval or key-word extraction. For the moment we codify them in our electronic dictionary of 45000 frozen nouns with optional spacing. A codified example of a frozen noun with optional spacing is shown below.
(26) munmin ^ jeongbu, N32+XN+sk_sk-PRED+2+InstHum (a civilian government)
- | word boundary |
^ | optional spacing |
Acc | accusative postposition |
Aux | auxiliary postposition |
Conj | conjunctive postposition |
Dsf | determinative suffix |
E | empty sequence |
Gen | genitive postposition |
Mpas | suffix of past tense |
Mplu | plural suffix |
Nmtv | nominative postposition |
Npred | predicative noun |
Postp | nominal postposition |
Postp.e | postposition of a complement in e |
Postp.eseo | postposition of a complement in eseo |
Postp.wa | postposition of a complement in wa |
Sfn | suffix of nominalization |
Ts | declarative terminative suffix |
Tsi | interrogative terminative suffix |
V-n | noun morpho-syntactically associated with a verb |
X | element without any grammatical category |
Bibliographie
References:
Bae Sun-Mee, 2000, Vers le traitement des groupes nominaux du coréen dans INTEX, Revue. Informatique et Statistique dans les Sciences Humaines, vol. 36, p. 9-28.
Bae Sun-Mee, 2001a, Construction of an electronic dictionary for compound nouns in Korean, 2nd International Conference ASIALEX. Proceedings, pp. 182-187, Seoul, August 8-10.
Bae Sun-Mee, 2001b, Deux types de représentations des séquences nominales figées en coréen et de leurs formes fléchies avec INTEX, Lingvisticae Investigationes, John Benjamins B, V., Amsterdam, pp. 147-165 (to appear).
Kolyeo daehakgyo daehakgukeo pyeonchansil (Editorial Department of Korean for college students in Korea University), 1994, eoneo-wa sasang – eoneo-wa munhwa (language and thought – language and culture), Seoul: Korea University Press.
Korean Ministry of Education, 1988, The rules of Korean orthography.
Monceaux Anne, 1993, La formation des noms composés de structure Nom Adjectif. Elaboration d’un dictionnaire électronique, Doctoral thesis, University of Paris 7.
Nam Jee-Sun, 1994, Dictionnaire des noms simples du coréen, Rapport Technique N° 46, IGM, University of Marne-la-Vallée.
No Myeong-Hui, 1998, hyeondae gukeo hanjaeo-ui daneogujo yeongu (A Study on the Word Structure of sino-Korean in Modern Korean), Doctoral thesis. Seoul National University.
Pyojun Gukeo Daesajeon (Grand Standard Korean Dictionary), 1999, The National Academy of the Korean Language, Seoul: Dusan Donga.
Silberztein Max, 2000, The manual of INTEX, LADL, Paris 7 University.
Yang Byeong-Seop, 1993, yeonghwa, salang, yeonghwayesul, geuligo ulideului yeonghwa iyagi (movie, love, art and our movie story), Seoul: Sinyeongmidieo.
Annexe
Appendix
Notations
Notes de bas de page
1 cf. Bae Sun-Mee (2000, 2001).
2 To identify discrepancies between editorial dictionaries and texts, we utilized the KAIST Corpus (http://morph.kaist.ac.kr/kcp), which contains over 70 million simple typographic units.
3 In Korean, nouns usually occur in sentences with one or several nominal postposition (s). Nominal postpositions in Korean are one of the parts of speech in Korean grammar and are related to syntactic and/or semantic functions of nouns. For a classification of nominal postpositions, see Bae Sun-Mee (2000).
4 For criteria of semantic features, see Section 6.
5 For details, cf. Bae Sun-Mee (2002).
6 cf. M. Silberztein (2000).
7 These FST make up an electronic dictionary of sequences of nominal postpositions.
8 Sino-Korean words are historically borrowed from Chinese. Most of specialized or learned vocabulary is sino-Korean.
9 This set of statistics would be different for compact nouns.
10 cf. Yang Byeong-Seop (1993).
11 cf. Kolyeo daehakgyo daehakgukeo pyeonchansil (Editorial Department of Korean for college students in Korea University) (1994).
12 B is the initial of busa “adverb” in Korean.
13 cf. A few monosyllabic ideograms like chaek “book” or mun “door” keep their syntactic autonomy in the Korean system because they do not have any equivalent proper Korean word (No Myeong-Hui, 1998).
14 There are some special X’s with three syllables like bansahwoi (antisocial). For example, when the autonomous noun sahwoi is combined with like the prefix ban- “anti-”, this sequence is non-autonomous. Its internal structures are same with disyllabic X’s.
15 For example, beseuteu seleo (XX) “best seller” or lum seobiseu (XN) “room service” which are compound nouns in English are directly borrowed as entire forms.
16 cf. For details about human and predicative nouns, see Sections 6 and 7.
17 Nam Jee-sun (1994) used this criterion in the dictionary of simple nouns.
18 In the dictionary of nominal postpositions, we treated the two different uses of- eseo as homonyms: a locative postposition (Postp.eseo) and a nominative postposition (Nmtv).
na-neun doseogwan-eseo gongbuha-nda
I-Aux library-Postp.eseo study-Ts
(I study in the library)
19 In the LADL’s dictionaries of type DELA (Laboratoire d’Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique), abstract nouns are described as predicative nouns, and their syntactic properties are encoded in a lexicon-grammar.
20 N-a means a relational adjective in French.
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INTEX
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