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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral The golden era of literature Prospering poetry instead of simple prose Literature as part of a larger field Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Singularités, pluralités

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    Table des matières

    Sámi Literature in Turbulence

    Veli-Pekka Lehtola

    p. 73-83

    Résumés

    Compared to the “Golden era” of the 1970s and 1980s, when literature became one of the most important forms of art in the Sámi culture, the amount of Sámi prose literature has decreased in the past fifteen years: only a handful of prose books have been published and literature is not as central an issue in the cultural debate as earlier. Poetry has become the most important form of literature, although the new generation of writers no longer emphasises the position of the Sámi people or the themes of “Sáminess” in the majority society.
    Because of the economically insecure conditions, Sámi literature still lacks permanent practices and traditions both in the fields of writing and publishing. There are problems in increasing the amount of readers in Sámi languages. However, the article recommends to be careful in restricting the definition of literature only to published novels and collections of poems. It is also common for Sámi artists to be active in many fields of art and the same people can produce pictures as painters and texts as writers. Documentary films have recently been a particularly attractive field for creativeness for young Sámi artists.

    Par rapport à l’« âge d’or » des années 1970 et 1980, quand la littérature est devenue une des formes d’art les plus importantes dans la culture same, ces quinze dernières années la quantité de prose same a diminué : seule une poignée de livres en prose ont été publiés, et la littérature n’est plus aussi active qu’avant dans le débat culturel de la société. La poésie est devenue la plus importante forme de littérature, bien que la nouvelle génération d’écrivains n’insiste plus sur la position des Same ou le thème de la « samitude » dans la société majoritaire.
    En raison des conditions économiques précaires, la littérature same manque toujours de pratiques et traditions permanentes, tant en matière d’écriture que de publication. Il est difficile d’augmenter le nombre de lecteurs en langues sames. Toutefois, le présent article recommande d’être prudent quand il s’agit de restreindre la définition de la littérature uniquement aux romans et recueils de poèmes publiés. Il est également fréquent que les artistes sames soient actifs dans plusieurs domaines artistiques, et les mêmes personnes peuvent produire des tableaux et des textes. Les documentaires, en particulier, ont ces derniers temps été un champ de créativité séduisant pour les jeunes artistes sames.

    Texte intégral The golden era of literature Prospering poetry instead of simple prose Literature as part of a larger field Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteur

    Texte intégral

    1Literature became one of the most important forms of art in the Sámi culture during the 1970s and 1980s, when writers participated in the ethnopolitical Sámi movement by combining Sámi traditions with a variety of modern influences1. However, in the past fifteen years the amount of Sámi prose literature has decreased: only a handful of prose books have been published in that span and literature is less active in cultural debates than it was in previous years.

    2Writers of the 1980s and 1990s have even expressed concern about a possible crisis in Sámi literature. Rauni-Magga Lukkari says that Sámi literature has fallen behind (bázahallan) other forms of art: non-Sámi readers do not understand the language and the Sámi themselves are not great consumers of literature written in Sámi. According to Lukkari, the Sámi are neglecting the literary heritage of their ancestors and the previous generation, because they are too eager to adopt modern novelties as a means for self-expression2.

    3In Kirsti Paltto’s frustrated opinion, the main reasons for the crisis are problems connected with the publishing of Sámi literature in general. These problems have remained unsolved during the past few decades. According to Paltto, many other indigenous people are facing a less difficult situation since “[…] for example in North America indigenous peoples mostly write in English which allows them to get more readers for their texts”3. Literature researcher Harald Gaski has provocatively asked whether the destiny of the Sámi literature will be the same: unless conditions for writing in Sámi are soon improved, Sámi writers will abandon their own language in favour of majority languages4.

    4The reactions of Sámi writers and scholars express the uncertainties around Sámi literature in the 21st century. Because of the shortage of prose writers in the younger generation, no new Sámi novels or short stories are being produced. Poetry is the most important form of Sámi literature, but even within this genre there are only a few writers publishing on a regular basis. The writers of the older generation are giving way to younger ones, but the young talents also seem to be orienting towards other forms of art: music, film, theatre, and more.

    5Was the “Westernised” genre of literature among the Sámi writers then only an unsuccessful experiment amidst a traditionally oral culture, based on the idealistic optimism of the previous generation of Sámi intelligentsia that had been “bathed” in the majority educational system? Was the failure of this project due to the language and publishing issues that Paltto and Gaski refer to – in other words, the long-term neglect of Sámi rights to use and be educated in their native language?

    6Or were the indigenous Sámi people, to whom the written and literary language remained relatively unfamiliar due to a lack of funds and institutional support, naturally attracted to the idea of audiovisual media as a means of self-expression? Was literary culture abandoned as an old-fashioned institution, replaced instead by the postmodern possibilities of audiovisual and multimedia communications? At the heart of the matter lies the question of whether Sámi literature is actually facing a crisis, or if other explanations be found for its underdevelopment during the 21st century5?

    The golden era of literature

    7Different forms of art have had a significant role as a means of self-expression for the Sámi people and in creating their ethnic identity since the 1970s. The significance of the art forms has varied depending on the eras. In the 1970s, there was a massive participation of writers and music writers in the ethnopolitical movement. The poetry of politically active writers, such as Kirsti Paltto, Rauni-Magga Lukkari and Nils-Aslak Valkeapää reflected and created the identity of young Sámi between the traditional culture and modern influences. Poetry was part of the struggle of the Sámi people for their rights and identity. Poets emphasised the significance of native language in reflecting the world of experiences. It was characteristic of the Sámi literature in the early days that the texts were shared in various arenas: poetry and short stories were published not as books, but in a number of collaborative publications, miscellaneous duplicated publications and – for example – in the only Sámi periodical in Finland, called Sabmelaš (established in 1934)6.

    8When the Sámi national tendency started to slow down in the 1980s, novels became the main field of Sámi literature. The perspective had also changed. Instead of stressing opposition towards the majority and emphasising the idea of “Sáminess”, prose writers were now looking at the Sámi community from inside out. Besides Paltto, Eino Guttorm, Hans Aslak Guttorm and Jovnna-Ánde Vest wrote about recent history, analysing, among other things, the power mechanisms of the Sámi societies themselves (e.g. in Laestadian communities). Ellen Marie Vars, Rauna Paadar-Leivo and Kerttu Vuolab looked toward issues of gender and feminism, studying the girls and women growing up into the Sámi culture in the modernising society7.

    9Nils-Aslak Valkeapää was a legend of Sámi literature from the 1970s to the 1990s. He published his main literary work consisting of Ruoktu váimmus (1985 [Trekways of the Wind]) and Beaivi, áhĉážan (1988 [The Sun, My Father]). The former is a trilogy of poems giving a psychological account of the development of a Sámi youngster. It describes how a young man, who was attached to the northern nature by his native language, slowly starts to understand his position in the world ruled by the majority, “the world of papers”. At the same time he is beginning to realise how he is connected with the other indigenous people, among which he “ha[s] found a sister, ha[s] found a brother”. Beaivi, áhčážán is a multi-layered epic, or even a symphonic story of the Sámi people, where the writer’s personal history intersects with the history of his ancestors8.

    10If we look back today, the period starting in 1981 when Eino Guttorm published his first book and ending in 1994 when Rauna Paadar-Leivo’s Goaskinjárga [Eaglecape] was published, can be considered the “golden era” of Sámi literature. Considering the small Sámi population, a significant amount of literature written in Sámi was published during that period. What makes the situation even more special is that most of the prose writers and some of the poets were Finnish citizens, although the share of the Sámi population is many times higher in the other Nordic countries.

    11Since the 1980s, literature and music were forced to struggle for their position as the most important forms of art and cultural expression, because new forms of art, such as theatre, pictorial arts and film were gaining popularity. All these forms of art were able to participate in the ongoing societal debate in their own way. Fiction films began to play an important role in expressing the Sámi culture, starting with Nils Gaup’s film Ofelaš (1987 [Pathfinder]) and Paul Anders Simma’s films in the 1990s. The next century strongly brought forward documentaries providing “artistic” forms of expression. In the same manner as fiction, documentaries seemed to be able to reflect and analyse burning issues, such as Sámi identity and the sense of belonging to a community9.

    12The dramatic arts and theatre ended up providing the most compelling arenas for self-expression. In particular, the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre in Norway presented current themes and issues for discussion in a better way than many other forms of art. The dramatic arts attracted Sámi writers as well; for example, the texts of Inger Margrethe Olsen and of Cecilia Persson were staged in the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre. Rauni-Magga Lukkari also took an emerging interest in playwriting: playwriting and translating10.

    Prospering poetry instead of simple prose

    13The dilemma of Sámi prose literature is apparent in the statistics of the 21st century. During the first decade only a few novels were published compared to the “golden era”, when dozens of novels were published in a similar duration. Among the novelists, Kirsti Paltto and Jovnna-Ánde Vest published the final parts of their trilogies in the 21st century. As for short stories, writing them has never been popular among Sámi writers.

    14Paltto had started writing her epic trilogy Guhtoset dearvan mu bohccot (1987 [Farewell my Reindeer]), Gurzo luottat (1991 [Tracks of the Devil]) and Nasttit muohtagierragis (2007 [Stars in Snowdrift]) already in the 1980s. She describes the change of the little Riebanjavri village from the pre-war period to “the snowmobile revolution” in the 1960s. Paltto’s novels typically have a large gallery of characters and strong categorising, which emphasises how modern influences cause the erosion of Sámi traditions and way of life11.

    15Vest’s trilogy Árbbolaččat (1996, 2002 and 2005 [The Heirs]) uses more subtle and everyday tones to paint a chronological description of the life of one family in the Teno River area. This trilogy is set in more recent times. In the third and final book the main character Heikki has already reached the borderline between the 1970s and 1980s, and experienced the rise of the Sámi political movement. Having left his community for Southern Finland at an early age, the main character now returns to observe from an outsider perspective how the Sámi are coping with the rapid change in their society12.

    16Kerttu Vuolab, who is known for her books for children and youth, published the novel Bárbmoáirras (2008 [Fairy Land]) which presents a new kind of Sámi literature. By combining mythological elements common to all Sámi people with the storytelling tradition of the Deatnu (Tana or Teno) River area and her own phases of life, Vuolab creates, to some extent, an autobiographic epic describing the history of the Sámi. The novel combines three different levels of time, where the world of Sámi gods mixes with the life of a Sámi family in the 20th century. It also combines Sámi beliefs, proverbs, place-names, stories and mythology. All these elements are woven together into a mythical birth story where all elements in nature are connected with each and every life experience. Gods and the anthropomorphic nature keep living in people’s lives as place-names, names and fables, and influence the way people experience their everyday life. The novel emphasises the philosophy of continuity among the Sámi and indigenous people, where the world must be handed over to future generations in such shape that it will provide for the descendants as long as possible13.

    17When the novel production slowed down in the 2000s, poetry regained its position as the leading form of Sámi literature. Poetry was then mainly written by women – especially after Nils-Aslak Valkeapää passed away in 2001. Unlike Valkeapää, the new generation of writers distanced itself further from the Sámi national themes. No longer did poetic literature emphasise the position of the Sámi people or the themes of “Sáminess” in the majority society. Being a Sámi may not even be mentioned, but themes like being a woman, being a mother, or feelings of alienation are prevalent in the new poetry. The Sáminess can be detected especially in the language, which often reflects images from nature and worldly experience14.

    18The current Sámi poet with the longest career is Inger-Mari Aikio-Arianaick (Ima) from Finnish Lapland. Instead of emphasising Sámi issues, she has concentrated on observing a woman’s inner thoughts, as well as cultural differences in the modern world, most interestingly expressed through cross-cultural relationships between women and men. Besides subtle tones of the Sámi language, she also uses expressions of irony and black humour to describe the joys and troubles connected with pregnancy and motherhood. The collection of poems Máilmmis dása (2001 [From the World to This]) describes not only love and motherhood but also cultures meeting and colliding with each other. Geographically, Lapland and Mauritius are located in different parts of the world, but the couple in love can feel unity through nature: “the moon / weaves our hands together / over the ocean”15. Different traditions on the groom’s home island make the bride long for her own fjelds and reindeer meat, but they also help her understand her own background, as she becomes aware that her own prejudices resemble outside attitudes towards Sámi people16.

    19Painter Synnøve Persen from Norwegian Lapland has continued her literary career, which she started in the 1990s, with the book Meahci suvas bohciidit ságat (2005 [The Stories Are Born in the Sighing of the Wood]). Persen’s language resembles the lyrics of Sámi yoik in its use of short aphorisms, free verse and descriptions of nature. Her language is compact and minimalistic. Abstract images are presented in the poems and they repeat the central themes of the collection of poems: searching for the utmost boundaries both within a single person’s psyche and in natural images17.

    20Another painter, Rose-Marie Huuva from Swedish Lapland, has also become a major author during the 21st century. Gálbma rádná (2001 [Cold Companion]) is a description of a woman sick with cancer who, after having experienced shock and uncertainty following her diagnosis, returns to her Sámi roots to find a new kind of avenue to share the experiences of her mother and her ancestors. Her collection of poems Ii mihkkege leat (2006 [There Is Nothing]) also highlights the transferring of traditional knowledge between generations to provide conditions for the existence of human beings. “Mu šaddan álggii / áigá dolin / máttaráhkuid váimmus” [“My upbringing started / already in the past / in the heart of my ancestors”]18.

    21In Finland, the young multitalented Niillas Holmberg has described in his collection of poems Dego livččen oaidnán iežan (2009 [As if I Had Seen Myself]) how a modern youngster shuttles between two environments, the home village and the city. Born in the middle of the wilderness, the protagonist experiences the difference between these two worlds: “[…] but how will I explain / that in the nature even the trees are more sensitive / they can’t in the same way / ignore”. Even minor observations related to everyday life are expressed lyrically: “Sister / have you heard of a land / where the snow doesn’t stay / it only moistens the ground so / that your feet freeze / but your head is sweating”19.

    22One of the young Norwegian poets, Sigbjørn Skåden, has said that he finds it difficult to relate to the literature of the older generation, which debates the assimilation policy of the Norwegian government and the painful memories from the First and Second World Wars – events that are unfamiliar to the young author born in the 1970s. In his own collections of poems, Skåden describes non-Sámi-related themes by placing them in the Sámi environment. His novel Skuovvadeddjiid gonagas (2004 [The King of the Shoemakers]) is inspired by Central European mythology, but the author has placed the novel in a Sea Sámi community. Prekariáhta lávlla (2009 [The Song of the Precariat]) is a description of the urban ICT (information and communications technology) world from the perspective of a young Sámi couple, Debbie and Ian (two very non-Sámi names!). The psychedelic poems cruise from the Sámi Grand Prix song competition in Kautokeino to the post-punk movement in Northern England, from Henrik Ibsen’s novels to song lyrics, brands, pastiches, and nonsense. In his novel Láhppon mánáid bestejeaddji (2008 [The Saviour of the Lost Children]), originally published under a pseudonym as a blog on the Internet, Skåden treats issues related to the queer culture and homosexuality, themes that had previously been discussed mostly in the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre and documentary films20.

    23Although the colonial critique has somewhat softened in 21st Sámi literature – or at least it has remained hidden between the lines of poetry –, the anthology Viidat (2005 [Largely]) describes the past of Sámiland as a history of forced population transfers, racism and race biology drawing from the poems of Rose-Marie Huuva, Inghilda Tapio, Thomas Marainen and Simon Marainen. For Huuva, for instance, reopening the old wounds is related to a new healing process where re-establishing the Sámi cultural heritage means reconciliation with the traumatic memories.

    24There are a number of Sámi authors who have started writing in the language of the majority, mainly because of the problematic realities of the commercial publishing industry. For example, Eino Guttorm wrote the novel Tunturimorsian (1989 [The Fjeld Bride]) in Finnish to get it published. When an author with a Sámi background chooses the language of the majority, the reason is usually that the author believes this language to have potential for greater impact with a broader audience and to have greater commercial viability. The author may also have got used to writing in the majority language better than in Sámi, especially in Norway and Sweden. This has also happened in the case of Siiri Magga-Miettunen, author of three highly documentary-based novels relying heavily on the Sámi storytelling tradition.

    Literature as part of a larger field

    25There are several reasons for the fact that prose literature has not been as successful as poetry and other forms of art since the beginning of the 21st century. Publishing literature in the Sámi language has not been a profitable business for publishing houses. Many of the potential Sámi readers are practically illiterate when it comes to reading their native language, and although Sámi has been taught in schools in Sámi areas since the 1970s, there are only a limited number of active readers in Sámi languages.

    26This is why the publishing of Sámi literature in most cases depends on allocated funds and the goodwill of the Nordic States. While Norway has given plentiful financial support to the Sámi-owned publishing houses, Finland has given practically no support at all. Dependency on federal support has required that financial support must be sought separately for every single book, and this has led to instability and even bankruptcies among the Sámi-owned publishing houses. For example, according to Kerttu Vuolab, she went through two bankruptcies of two separate publishing houses before her book Ánde ja Risten jagi fárus (1990 [Ánde and Risten in the Round of Year]) came out. Eino Guttorm had to wait six years before one of his novels was finally published21.

    27In former times, Sámi children were forced to adopt the majority language in the school environment. For this reason, they have had a somewhat estranged attitude towards written language and literary culture. As Vuolab said, the book “has been a strange object”22 for the Sámi. According to her, it’s not an easy jump to be a writer and to create literary works in the Sámi language.

    28Because of the economically insecure conditions for long-term work, prose writing lacks permanent practices and traditions. Vuolab compares prose writing with the exhaustion of moving in deep snowdrift when you are breaking trail: besides storytelling and mediating traditions and knowledge, you also have to be a linguist, developing modern vocabulary and tropes for literature23.

    29The younger Sámi generation is increasingly bilingual and this has to some extent decreased Sámi language skills. The popularity of audiovisual expression channels among the young Sámi can be partially explained by the problems related to language teaching in the Sámi areas. Bilingualism is being reflected in modern Sámi art as a certain kind of double communication. For example, theatre and film are speaking to two audiences: the Sámi themselves and the outsiders. With Sámi language literature, this twofold communication is more difficult, particularly because the translations are few and they take long periods of time to complete.

    30However, Harald Gaski has emphasised that the traditional “Westernised” way of defining literature mostly as published novels and collections of poems is not sufficient to describe the Sámi literature. In his short literary history Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis (2008 [Traces at the Turn of the Century]), Gaski also presents texts published in magazines, causeries read on the radio, Internet discussions, biographies and play manuscripts as forms of Sámi literature24.

    31It is common that the authors of a small nation are active in many fields of art, and concentrating on a specific field does not do justice to the holistic picture of Sámi artists, painters and writers. It is typical of Sámi art that the same people produce pictures as painters and texts as writers. The most famous figure in this sense was Nils-Aslak Valkeapää – not only a composer and a painter but also a poet and even an actor. His example has been followed by many artists, for example Niillas Holmberg who, although still young, has already worked as a musician and a songwriter as well as a poet, an actor and a television presenter25.

    32Crossing the borders is typical of other poets as well, such as Huuva and Persen. Besides her literary work, Inger-Mari Aikio-Arianack has also become known as one of the best documentary film makers of the 21st century. She has published four collections of poems and made five documentary films. Additionally, stage drama has produced many quality examples of literary fiction during the 21st century. Curiously, many researchers have for some reason ignored this fact, perhaps because stage drama lies between the historical disciplinary silos of the contemporary Western academy. Furthermore, many literary collections and translations have been published during the 21st century, Jovnna-Ánde Vest being one key participant in these efforts.

     

    33The answer to the question whether Sámi literature is facing a crisis depends on the point of view from which we are looking at the question. “Yes”, the amount of prose literature has admittedly decreased in the 21st century, and “Yes”, Sámi literature lacks funding for publishing purposes, a problem that still has not been dealt with in a satisfactory manner. On the other hand, we may ask whether the small amount of published prose literature is actually a sign of returning to some kind of normal state considering the small amount of potential readers and Sámi population. Perhaps the “crisis” is merely an optical illusion caused by the golden era at the end of the 1980s and at the beginning of the 1990s, when the politically active Sámi generation put all their effort and creativity to creating literature and other forms of art.

    34We must also consider, as Gaski points out26, that despite the small amount of prose, the field of literature in which the Sámi are expressing themselves is relatively broad compared with the small Sámi population. In that sense, we may claim that Sámi literature has turned back to its roots, to the 1970s when literature was published in different arenas and also in other forms than books. In those days, literature was but one part of a broader field where different forms of art addressed the same questions and issues, each form of art using its own methods and its own voice to do so.

    Bibliographie

    Aikio-Arianaick Inger-Mari, Máilmmis dása, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2001.

    Aikio-Arianaick Inger-Mari, Suonat, Kautokeino, DAT, 2008; trans.: This Beloved Homeland, Aino Paasonen, Beatrice Levin Dumin (trans.), Vienna, Camera poetica, 2009.

    Beyond the Wolf Line. An Anthology of Sámi Poetry, Pekka Sammallahti, Anthony Selbourne (eds. and trans.), Guildford, Making Waves, 1996.

    Dana Kathleen Osgood, Áillohaš the Shaman-Poet and his Govadas-Image Drum. A Literary Ecology of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2003.

    Gaski Harald, …nu gárvvis girdilit… Sámi girjjálašvuođa oahppogirji, Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1991.

    Gaski Harald, Sámi čállit. 25 sámi čappa- ja fágagirjjalas sátneduojara, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2005.

    Gaski Harald, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis. Ođđaset sámi girjjalašvuohta, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2008.

    Gaski Harald, “Nils-Aslak Valkeapää – Indigenous Voice and Multimedia Artist”, AlterNative – An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, vol. 4, nº 2, 2008, p. 155-178.

    Gaski Harald, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing: Sami Literature”, Nordlit, nº 27, 2011, p. 33-54.

    Hirvonen Vuokko, Sydämeni palava. Johdatus saamelaiseen joiku- ja kertomusperinteeseen, taiteeseen ja kirjallisuuteen, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 1995.

    Hirvonen Vuokko, “The Illustration and the Text in One Hand. Multi-Talented Sámi Authors”, in Nordic Voices: Literature from the Nordic Countries, Jenny Fossum Grønn (ed.), Oslo, Nordbok, 2005, p. 104-119.

    Hirvonen Vuokko, Voices from Sápmi: Sámi Women’s Path to Authorship, Kaija Anttonen (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2008.

    Holmberg Niillas, Dego livččen oaidnán iežan, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2009.

    Huuva Rose-Marie, Ii mihkkege leat, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2006.

    In the Shadow of the Midnight Sun. Contemporary Sami Prose and Poetry, Harald Gaski (ed. and trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1996.

    Kuokkanen Rauna, “Saamelaisen nykykirjallisuuden monet kasvot”, Suomen kirjallisuudentutkijain seuran vuosikirja, vol. 52, 1999, p. 151-170.

    Kuokkanen Rauna, “Survivance in Sami and First Nations Boarding School Narratives – Reading Novels by Kerttu Vuolab and Shirley Sterling”, The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 27, nº 3/4, 2003, p. 697-727.

    Kuokkanen Rauna, “Border Crossings, Pathfinders and New Visions: The Role of Sami Literature in Contemporary Society”, Nordlit, nº 15, 2004, Special Issue on Northern Minorities, p. 91-104.

    Lehtola Veli-Pekka, “Saamelaiskirjallisuus uuden ja vanhan risteyksessä”, in Marginalia ja kirjallisuus, Matti Savolainen (ed.), Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995, p. 36-92.

    Lehtola Veli-Pekka, The Sámi People. Traditions in Transition, Linna Weber Müller-Wille (trans.), Fairbanks, University of Alaska Press, 2004, p. 96-103.

    Lehtola Veli-Pekka, Muitaleddjiid maŋisboahttit. Beaivváš Sámi Teáhtera historjá, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2008.

    Lukkari Rauni-Magga, Árbeeadni, Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1996; trans.: The Time of the Lustful Mother, Kaija Anttonen (trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1999.

    No Beginning, No End. The Sami Speak Up, Kaarina Kailo, Elina Helander (eds.), Edmonton – Kautokeino, Canadian Circumpolar Institute – Nordic Sami Institute, 1998.

    Paltto Kirsti, “Publishing Sámi Literature – From Christian Translations to Sámi Publishing Houses”, Rauna Kuokkanen (ed. and trans.), Studies in American Indian Literatures, vol. 22, nº 2, 2010, p. 42-58.

    Schuler David Dwight, East of the Sun and West of the Moon: Cultural Empowerment and the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Colorado, 2004.

    Valkeapää Nils-Aslak, Ruoktu váimmus, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1985; trans.: Trekways of the Wind, Ralph Salisbury, Lars Nordström, Harald Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1994.

    Valkeapää Nils-Aslak, Beaivi, áhĉážan, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1988; trans.: The Sun, My Father, Ralph Salisbury, Lars Nordström, Harald Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1997.

    Notes de bas de page

    1My article mostly discusses Sámi literature in the North Sámi language, which is the main literary Sámi language in Norway, Sweden and Finland. The number of North Sámi speakers is estimated to be about 25,000, but reading North Sámi is problematic for most of them. There are also publications in other Sámi languages. For example in Finland, Petter Morottaja has published poetry in Inari Sámi and Kati-Claudia Fofonoff in Skolt Sámi.

    2See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis. Ođđaset sámi girjjalašvuohta, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2008, p. 42.

    3K. Paltto, “Ensimmäinen naissaamelaiskirjailija” [A Short Biography], http://www.kirstepaltto.org/biografiija (accessed October 17, 2012; the website was closed during the publication process of this paper). See also K. Paltto, “Publishing Sámi Literature – From Christian Translations to Sámi Publishing Houses”, R. Kuokkanen (ed. and trans.), Studies in American Indian Literatures, vol. 22, nº 2, 2010, p. 42-58.

    4H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 84.

    5Literary studies were a core element of the cultural research by the Sámi themselves especially in the 1990s. See e.g. H. Gaski, …nu gárvvis girdilit… Sámi girjjálašvuođa oahppogirji, Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1991; V.-P. Lehtola, “Saamelaiskirjallisuus uuden ja vanhan risteyksessä”, in Marginalia ja kirjallisuus, M. Savolainen (ed.), Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995, p. 36-92; V. Hirvonen, Sydämeni palava. Johdatus saamelaiseen joiku- ja kertomusperinteeseen, taiteeseen ja kirjallisuuteen, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 1995; R. Kuokkanen, “Saamelaisen nykykirjallisuuden monet kasvot”, Suomen kirjallisuudentutkijain seuran vuosikirja, vol. 52, 1999, p. 151-170. Some anthologies in English were also published, see e.g. In the Shadow of the Midnight Sun. Contemporary Sami Prose and Poetry, H. Gaski (ed. and trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1996; Beyond the Wolf Line. An Anthology of Sámi Poetry, P. Sammallahti, A. Selbourne (eds. and trans.), Guildford, Making Waves, 1996. In the 2000s many of the Sámi literary scholars have drifted to other sections of cultural studies, such as cultural histories, pedagogics and indigenous studies, publishing only some special articles concerning Sámi literature. Harald Gaski has been a key figure in the literary studies, see e.g. H. Gaski, Sámi čállit. 25 sámi čappa- ja fágagirjjalas sátneduojara, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2005; H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…; in English: H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing: Sami Literature”, Nordlit, nº 27, 2011, p. 33-54; see also R. Kuokkanen, “Border Crossings, Pathfinders and New Visions: The Role of Sami Literature in Contemporary Society”, Nordlit, nº 15, 2004, Special Issue on Northern Minorities, p. 91-104. For long interviews with Sámi authors, see No Beginning, No End. The Sami Speak Up, K. Kailo, E. Helander (eds.), Edmonton – Kautokeino, Canadian Circumpolar Institute – Nordic Sami Institute, 1998.

    6E.g. V.-P. Lehtola, “Saamelaiskirjallisuus…”, p. 52-62; H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 42-43.

    7See V.-P. Lehtola “Saamelaiskirjallisuus…”, p. 63-70. About a Vuolab’s novel, see R. Kuokkanen, “Survivance in Sami and First Nations Boarding School Narratives – Reading Novels by Kerttu Vuolab and Shirley Sterling ”, The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 27, nº 3/4, 2003, p. 697-727.

    8About Valkeapää see especially H. Gaski, “Nils-Aslak Valkeapää – Indigenous Voice and Multimedia Artist”, AlterNative – An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, vol. 4, nº 2, 2008, p. 155-178; V. Hirvonen, “The Illustration and the Text in One Hand. Multi-Talented Sámi Authors”, in Nordic Voices: Literature from the Nordic Countries, J. Fossum Grønn (ed.), Oslo, Nordbok, 2005, p. 104-119; K. O. Dana, Áillohaš the Shaman-Poet and his Govadas-Image Drum. A Literary Ecology of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2003. For the translations of Valkeapää’s poetry, see N.-A. Valkeapää, Trekways of the Wind, R. Salisbury, L. Nordström, H. Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1994, and N.-A. Valkeapää, The Sun, My Father, R. Salisbury, L. Nordström, H. Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1997.

    9See V.-P. Lehtola, The Sámi People. Traditions in Transition, L. Weber Müller-Wille (trans.), Fairbanks, University of Alaska Press, 2004, p. 96-103.

    10See V.-P. Lehtola, Muitaleddjiid maŋisboahttit. Beaivváš Sámi Teáhtera historjá, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2008; D. D. Schuler, East of the Sun and West of the Moon: Cultural Empowerment and the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Colorado, 2004.

    11See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 51-54.

    12See H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 47.

    13See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 57-59.

    14The poetry written by women has been a strong chain in Sámi literature, see V. Hirvonen, Voices from Sápmi: Sámi Women’s Path to Authorship, K. Anttonen (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2008; see also a translation, R.-M. Lukkari, The Time of the Lustful Mother, K. Anttonen (trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1999.

    15I.-M. Aikio-Arianaick, Máilmmis dása, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2001, p. 7.

    16E.g. H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 47-48. For a translation, see I.-M. Aikio-Arianaick, This Beloved Homeland, A. Paasonen, B. L. Dumin (trans.), Vienna, Camera poetica, 2009.

    17About S. Persen, see H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 46.

    18R.-M. Huuva, Ii mihkkege leat, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2006, p. 8. About Huuva, see http://www.calliidlagadus.org/web/index.php?leksikon=1&olles=196 [désormais inaccessible].

    19N. Holmberg, Dego livččen oaidnán iežan, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2009, p. 45 and 64. For poems of N. Holmberg in English, see http://www.transcript-review.org/en/issue/transcript-36-the-literatures-of-stateless-nations/poetry-niillas-holmberg.

    20See H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 49-50.

    21Interview with Kerttu Vuolab.

    22Ibid.

    23Ibid.

    24H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…

    25About the multitalented history of the Sámi literature, see V. Hirvonen, “The Illustration and the Text in One Hand…”.

    26H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 34-43.

    Auteur

    • Veli-Pekka Lehtola

      University of Oulu (Finland)

      Veli-Pekka Lehtola est professeur de culture same à l’institut Giellagas pour les études sames à l’université d’Oulu (Finlande). Il a un doctorat en études littéraires décerné dans la même université. Il se concentre sur l’histoire des Sames et de la Scandinavie du Nord, ainsi que sur les représentations des Sames, en particulier la littérature same. Il est l’auteur de The Sámi People. Traditions in Transition (Linna Weber Müller-Wille (trad.), Fairbanks, University of Alaska Press, 2004) et plus récemment Saamelaiset suomalaiset – kohtaamisia 1896-1953 (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2012). Il a publié 12 monographies, principalement en finnois, et environ 90 articles scientifiques. Il vient d’Aanaar / Inari en territoire same.

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    1My article mostly discusses Sámi literature in the North Sámi language, which is the main literary Sámi language in Norway, Sweden and Finland. The number of North Sámi speakers is estimated to be about 25,000, but reading North Sámi is problematic for most of them. There are also publications in other Sámi languages. For example in Finland, Petter Morottaja has published poetry in Inari Sámi and Kati-Claudia Fofonoff in Skolt Sámi.

    2See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis. Ođđaset sámi girjjalašvuohta, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2008, p. 42.

    3K. Paltto, “Ensimmäinen naissaamelaiskirjailija” [A Short Biography], http://www.kirstepaltto.org/biografiija (accessed October 17, 2012; the website was closed during the publication process of this paper). See also K. Paltto, “Publishing Sámi Literature – From Christian Translations to Sámi Publishing Houses”, R. Kuokkanen (ed. and trans.), Studies in American Indian Literatures, vol. 22, nº 2, 2010, p. 42-58.

    4H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 84.

    5Literary studies were a core element of the cultural research by the Sámi themselves especially in the 1990s. See e.g. H. Gaski, …nu gárvvis girdilit… Sámi girjjálašvuođa oahppogirji, Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1991; V.-P. Lehtola, “Saamelaiskirjallisuus uuden ja vanhan risteyksessä”, in Marginalia ja kirjallisuus, M. Savolainen (ed.), Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995, p. 36-92; V. Hirvonen, Sydämeni palava. Johdatus saamelaiseen joiku- ja kertomusperinteeseen, taiteeseen ja kirjallisuuteen, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 1995; R. Kuokkanen, “Saamelaisen nykykirjallisuuden monet kasvot”, Suomen kirjallisuudentutkijain seuran vuosikirja, vol. 52, 1999, p. 151-170. Some anthologies in English were also published, see e.g. In the Shadow of the Midnight Sun. Contemporary Sami Prose and Poetry, H. Gaski (ed. and trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1996; Beyond the Wolf Line. An Anthology of Sámi Poetry, P. Sammallahti, A. Selbourne (eds. and trans.), Guildford, Making Waves, 1996. In the 2000s many of the Sámi literary scholars have drifted to other sections of cultural studies, such as cultural histories, pedagogics and indigenous studies, publishing only some special articles concerning Sámi literature. Harald Gaski has been a key figure in the literary studies, see e.g. H. Gaski, Sámi čállit. 25 sámi čappa- ja fágagirjjalas sátneduojara, Karasjok, ČálliidLágádus, 2005; H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…; in English: H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing: Sami Literature”, Nordlit, nº 27, 2011, p. 33-54; see also R. Kuokkanen, “Border Crossings, Pathfinders and New Visions: The Role of Sami Literature in Contemporary Society”, Nordlit, nº 15, 2004, Special Issue on Northern Minorities, p. 91-104. For long interviews with Sámi authors, see No Beginning, No End. The Sami Speak Up, K. Kailo, E. Helander (eds.), Edmonton – Kautokeino, Canadian Circumpolar Institute – Nordic Sami Institute, 1998.

    6E.g. V.-P. Lehtola, “Saamelaiskirjallisuus…”, p. 52-62; H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 42-43.

    7See V.-P. Lehtola “Saamelaiskirjallisuus…”, p. 63-70. About a Vuolab’s novel, see R. Kuokkanen, “Survivance in Sami and First Nations Boarding School Narratives – Reading Novels by Kerttu Vuolab and Shirley Sterling ”, The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 27, nº 3/4, 2003, p. 697-727.

    8About Valkeapää see especially H. Gaski, “Nils-Aslak Valkeapää – Indigenous Voice and Multimedia Artist”, AlterNative – An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, vol. 4, nº 2, 2008, p. 155-178; V. Hirvonen, “The Illustration and the Text in One Hand. Multi-Talented Sámi Authors”, in Nordic Voices: Literature from the Nordic Countries, J. Fossum Grønn (ed.), Oslo, Nordbok, 2005, p. 104-119; K. O. Dana, Áillohaš the Shaman-Poet and his Govadas-Image Drum. A Literary Ecology of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2003. For the translations of Valkeapää’s poetry, see N.-A. Valkeapää, Trekways of the Wind, R. Salisbury, L. Nordström, H. Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1994, and N.-A. Valkeapää, The Sun, My Father, R. Salisbury, L. Nordström, H. Gaski (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 1997.

    9See V.-P. Lehtola, The Sámi People. Traditions in Transition, L. Weber Müller-Wille (trans.), Fairbanks, University of Alaska Press, 2004, p. 96-103.

    10See V.-P. Lehtola, Muitaleddjiid maŋisboahttit. Beaivváš Sámi Teáhtera historjá, Oulu, Oulun yliopisto, 2008; D. D. Schuler, East of the Sun and West of the Moon: Cultural Empowerment and the Beaivváš Sámi Theatre, Ph. D. Thesis, University of Colorado, 2004.

    11See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 51-54.

    12See H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 47.

    13See H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 57-59.

    14The poetry written by women has been a strong chain in Sámi literature, see V. Hirvonen, Voices from Sápmi: Sámi Women’s Path to Authorship, K. Anttonen (trans.), Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2008; see also a translation, R.-M. Lukkari, The Time of the Lustful Mother, K. Anttonen (trans.), Karasjok, Davvi Girji, 1999.

    15I.-M. Aikio-Arianaick, Máilmmis dása, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2001, p. 7.

    16E.g. H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 47-48. For a translation, see I.-M. Aikio-Arianaick, This Beloved Homeland, A. Paasonen, B. L. Dumin (trans.), Vienna, Camera poetica, 2009.

    17About S. Persen, see H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 46.

    18R.-M. Huuva, Ii mihkkege leat, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2006, p. 8. About Huuva, see http://www.calliidlagadus.org/web/index.php?leksikon=1&olles=196 [désormais inaccessible].

    19N. Holmberg, Dego livččen oaidnán iežan, Guovdageaidnu, DAT, 2009, p. 45 and 64. For poems of N. Holmberg in English, see http://www.transcript-review.org/en/issue/transcript-36-the-literatures-of-stateless-nations/poetry-niillas-holmberg.

    20See H. Gaski, “Song, Poetry and Images in Writing…”, p. 49-50.

    21Interview with Kerttu Vuolab.

    22Ibid.

    23Ibid.

    24H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…

    25About the multitalented history of the Sámi literature, see V. Hirvonen, “The Illustration and the Text in One Hand…”.

    26H. Gaski, Luottat bálgát jahkeduhátmolsumis…, p. 34-43.

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    Lehtola, V.-P. (2015). Sámi Literature in Turbulence. In M. Carayol & R. Peltola (éds.), Singularités, pluralités (1‑). Presses universitaires de Caen. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfd
    Lehtola, Veli-Pekka. « Sámi Literature in Turbulence ». In Singularités, pluralités, édité par Martin Carayol et Rea Peltola. Caen: Presses universitaires de Caen, 2015. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfd.
    Lehtola, Veli-Pekka. « Sámi Literature in Turbulence ». Singularités, pluralités, édité par Martin Carayol et Rea Peltola, Presses universitaires de Caen, 2015, https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfd.

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    Carayol, M., & Peltola, R. (éds.). (2015). Singularités, pluralités (1‑). Presses universitaires de Caen. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfk
    Carayol, Martin, et Rea Peltola, éd. Singularités, pluralités. Caen: Presses universitaires de Caen, 2015. https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfk.
    Carayol, Martin, et Rea Peltola, éditeurs. Singularités, pluralités. Presses universitaires de Caen, 2015, https://doi.org/10.4000/13tfk.
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