Introduction

1The term “Dunhuang caves” is generally used to refer to the vast Buddhist cave temple complex of Mogao 莫高 — one of the largest in East Asia — also called “The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas” (Qianfo dong 千佛洞), and located about 25 kilometers southeast of present‑day Dunhuang 敦煌, in Gansu province. The earliest extant caves most likely date back to the first half of the fifth century, the period of the Northern Liang Dynasty (397‑439). From that time, and until the fourteenth century, Buddhist believers constructed, reconstructed and restored various sections of this complex, which is currently composed of 735 caves and chapels constructed on a cliff of approximately 1.7 kilometers in length, and containing statues, sculpted images, and wall paintings. This identification, though widely accepted, is inaccurate as, in addition to Mogao, the “Dunhuang caves” also include a number of smaller sites. The most famous of these sites is Yulin 榆林, located about 100 kilometers east of Dunhuang and composed of only 42 caves constructed between the eighth and the fourteenth century. The “Dunhuang caves” also include the “Western Caves of the Thousand Buddhas” (Xi Qianfo dong 西千佛洞, 22 caves, the oldest of which dates from the Northern Wei Dynasty, 386‑534); the “Eastern Caves of the Thousand Buddhas” (Dong Qianfo dong 東千佛洞, 8 caves with the oldest dating from the Xi‑Xia period, 1032‑1227) and the “Wugemiao Caves” (Wugemiao shiku 五個廟石窟, 5 caves dating from the Northern Wei to the Five Dynasties).

2Established in 1944, the Dunhuang Academy (Dunhuang yanjiuyuan 敦煌研究院) has its headquarters in front of the Mogao site itself. For the past seventy years, the academy has been devoted entirely to the study of Dunhuang manuscripts and mural paintings, the preservation of the region’s Buddhist cave sites, and training specialists in the field. In 1961, the site was classed as a historical monument and placed under the protection of the Chinese government. In 1987 the caves became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History of Dunhuang

3The oasis of Dunhuang was strategically located. Not only was it a mandatory stopover between China and Central Asia, giving access to and from the Middle Kingdom, but it also served as a crucial divide between the northern and southern pathway of two sections of the so‑called “Silk Road”, which split into two at the eastern edge of the Taklamakan desert. Chinese expeditions to the West could station there before crossing the desert land that would lead them to other oases across the “Western Regions” (xiyu 西域), and then to Central Asia proper, and closer to the gates of the Roman Empire. The southern path led to the same Central‑Asian regions, cutting through Khotan and Yarkand, and flanking areas under Tibetan rule. These pathways also allowed merchants, travelers and pilgrims coming from Central Asia to reach China proper via the Hexi corridor and access the capitals of Han and Tang dynasties, Luoyang and Chang’an.

4Due to its historical context and geographic position, Dunhuang was also a point of convergence between various cultures, languages, and religions conveyed along the axes of trade. The influence of Buddhism on the region’s cultural, religious, and social life and the interaction between this belief system and various Central‑Asian or Indo‑tibetan civilizations gave rise to a unique multilingual and multicultural environment.

5In 111 B.C. the Chinese emperor Han Wudi 漢武帝 (r. 141‑87 B.C.) first established a commandery in Dunhuang, with the aim of consolidating Chinese presence at this strategic point, by relocating Chinese people from other areas. However, it was only about four centuries and a half later, with the spread of Buddhism along trade routes, that the construction of the Buddhist complex began. Based on a stele inscription dated 698 (found in cave 322), the origin of the Mogao complex is linked to a wandering monk named Lezun 樂僔, who, on arriving at this place in 366, saw a golden light that had the appearance of a thousand buddhas. Inspired by this vision, he constructed the first cave. Afterward, a chan (meditation) master named Faliang 法良 built a second cave next to it. Based on different sources, various scholars date the initial construction of the caves to approximately 13 or 22 years prior to the above‑mentioned date or even as early as to the third century. In any case, from that time onward, various caves were constructed and the site became the region’s most important Buddhist complex, growing in size and magnificence in tandem with Dunhuang cultural and economic growth as a strategic crossroads along a key section of the Silk Road.

6A significant number of caves was constructed in the sixth century during the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou (557‑581) dynasties, when members of the ruling families ‑ who were also fervent Buddhist adepts ‑ were assigned important roles in local government. Many caves were constructed under the brief reign of the Sui government (589‑618), which heavily promoted the Buddhist faith. In early (618‑704) and high Tang (705‑780), Mogao enjoyed its greatest period, with the construction of approximately 200 caves featuring the finest examples of synergy between Indian, Central Asian and Chinese artistic elements. In the mid‑eighth century, as a consequence of An Lushan’s rebellion (755), the region witnessed a period of general decline. Chinese troops had to leave the area to secure the capital and put an end to the rebellion. The bordering Tibetan Empire, after various military conquests along the Hexi corridor, took control of the Dunhuang region and annexed it to their territory for a short but very significant period that lasted around 70 years.1 This period is called the “Tibetan period” or “Tibetan rule” (781‑848). Thousands of documents in Tibetan found in the Dunhuang manuscripts were produced from this time onward. The decline of Tibetan domination in Dunhuang is linked to a phase of collapse of central power that from 842 resulted in a fragmentation of the Empire due to a power struggle between the Imperial family and local units that revolted against the central government. Zhang Yichao 張議潮 (d. 872), a Chinese general from Dunhuang, took advantage of the unstable situation to gather an army and subsequently took over the region. Zhang reestablished contact with the Tang Empire, which conferred him the title of Military Commissioner of the “Returning to Allegiance Army” (Guiyijun 歸義軍). The latter term is used to refer to the historical period starting with the reestablishment of the Chinese government (848) and ending with the Tangut invasion of the region (1036). During that period, power was alternated between various prominent local families. The Zhang family continued to rule the region after the collapse of the Tang Empire, until 914, at which point Cao Yijin 曹議金 (d. 935) became the first exponent of the Cao family to take up rule, and they remained in power until the end of the Guiyijun period. This family consolidated its power thanks to strong diplomatic policy with neighboring populations, notably the Uygurs and Khotanese, through marital alliances also represented in some mural paintings.

7The region was subsequently dominated by the Uygurs, the Tanguts, and Mongols, who upheld cave-art tradition and engaged in renovating and repainting the murals. Furthermore, due to various political and economic factors, and in particular the development of maritime commerce and the so‑called “Maritime Silk road”, these commercial routes fell into decline, and rising poverty levels along with depopulation would progressively transform the region into a pastureland and nomadic border.

The Buddhist complex and the Caves

8Archaeologists have identified two distinct and interdependent sections in this Buddhist complex: the northern and the southern sectors. The latter extends over a length of about one kilometer and has the largest number of caves decorated with statues, sculptures, mural paintings, and complex architectural elements, that is to say almost all of the so‑called “shrine caves” which have been the focus of scholarly research for more than a hundred years (487 of the 492 caves currently catalogued.2 However, some of them should in fact be considered niches or sections of architectural structures annexed to larger caves that have collapsed. The southern sector also contains the famous cave 17 (or “Cave Library”) where, at the beginning of the twentieth century, more than 40,000 manuscripts in various languages (Chinese and Tibetan for the most part) were found. These documents are referred to as the Dunhuang Manuscripts (see “The Dunhuang Manuscripts” in this encyclopaedia).

9The site runs from north to south along the course of a stream at the base of the cliff, and the main entrance of the caves is always found on the east‑facing wall. The caves were most likely equipped with a wooden façade surmounting the main entrance, and passages connecting the caves. As a general rule, the latter opened into a front chamber, in some cases illuminated by small windows, followed by a corridor leading to the main chamber, or “rear chamber”, i.e. the core religious space in the structure, where the most significant representations and painted scenes were located. Except for a few examples from later periods, all façades and wooden structures are missing, as is frequently the case for the front chambers which have collapsed with the front section of the cliff. Many caves underwent structural renovation, notably the entrances giving access to the corridor leading to the main chamber, or restoration of the wall paintings, which in some cases were repainted with new elements.

10The specific function of the caves, and indeed the purpose for which the whole complex was constructed, remain subject to debate. Various specialists have put forward diverse theories. Some have speculated on the cave’s function in light of the architectural elements and the iconographic program. Thus, various typologies of caves have been identified. Small caves, most of which were unadorned, were considered places intended for the practice of meditation, and thus called “meditation caves”. In some cases, they feature a statue facing the main entrance. Other examples are bigger in size with smaller undecorated side rooms that could each fit one person sitting in meditation. There are few of these caves in the southern sector.

11The entire surface of “shrine caves” is decorated, except for the floor, and they have varied structures. One typology is constituted of caves with a square architectural structure connecting floor to ceiling, at the center of the main chamber. These are known as “central pillar caves”. The “central pillar”, which is at times reminiscent of a stūpa, is decorated with statues, small painted niches and paintings on each side. Due to this structure, scholars have argued that these were conceived for the practice of circumambulation and, as such, they are generally considered places intended for religious practice. They often have a gabled or truncated pyramid ceiling in the front section of the rear chamber and a flat ceiling in the back. The antechamber ceiling could either be flat or in an inverted‑V. Moreover, the so‑called “hall caves” have a square rear chamber, the west wall of which is decorated with a niche or an altar containing statues and images, with wall paintings on either side. This cave typology is found in all historical periods. However, the variant with statues on a platform in the middle of the main chamber is most typically seen from the mid‑Tang to the Guiyijun period. As in the previous typology, this structure has suggested a specific function in line with circumambulation practices. However, all these identifications, though widely accepted, remain hypothetical. Some scholars3 have suggested that the Mogao caves functioned as mortuary shrines and were rarely (or never) used for religious activity, but mainly conceived to produce merits for the family members of the donors who sponsored their construction.

12Caves featuring colossal images are another (rarer) typology, well represented by cave 96, containing a giant Buddha enclosed in the nine storey wooden structure which became the iconic symbol of Mogao. This category is found in most of the major Central Asian and Chinese cave complexes, such as Yungang, Longmen, etc.

13The northern sector covers the rest of the site’s surface and is composed of 248 caves, most of which are badly damaged or almost collapsed. Only five caves have mural paintings and decorations (caves 461‑465). As for the southern sector, neither the exact nature and function of these caves, nor their precise link with the other sector, has been determined, though various theories have been put forth. According to some scholars, these caves were constructed to provide logistic support to the individuals who worked in the southern sector (painters and constructors) or carried out religious activities there (monks). Other specialists suggest that they served as sheepfolds, or cells intended to house traveling monks. Excavations carried out in recent decades have brought to light a number of specific features allowing the identification of various “cave-types”.4 Most of the unadorned caves that still have the remnants of a structure include a platform, which is understood to be a “meditation platform”, and they are thus considered “meditation caves”. In some cases, they have a central chamber leading to multiple small “meditation chambers”. A number of caves, showing evidence of having served as dwellings, in particular hearths and heated platform beds, are believed to have been residences for monastics. Caves with elements from the two above‑mentioned categories were most likely constructed both as living quarters and as places for practicing meditation. Furthermore, the northern sector also has more than twenty “burial caves”, usually quite small in size, containing the remains of either cremated or buried individuals, and few “storehouse caves”, intended for stocking grain. However, the latter are probably linked to a later use of the site. The northern and southern sectors were constructed in the same period and, similarly, were in use at the same time.

14There are various decorative features in the “shrine caves”: architectural features, statues (many of which were restored or rebuilt in a later period), and mural paintings. The main characters featured in sculpture are sitting or standing painted buddhas and major bodhisattvas (in particular Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, and Samantabhadra, among others), often flanked by other bodhisattvas, disciples and devarājas. They were made from straw and clay modeled on a wooden armature. In caves from the early period, the back of the statues was attached to the wall which also featured other figures in bas‑relief. From the Tang dynasty onward, they are detached from the wall. In both cases, background decorations also contribute to completing the three-dimensional scene. Walls and ceilings of “shrine caves” are (almost all) decorated with mural paintings, produced on multiple layers of plaster applied to the rock. Though very diverse, a number of recurring representations and characteristics are found in various caves. One typology is characterized by preaching scenes that are generally painted on one of the walls of the main chamber and feature a sitting or standing buddha preaching the Dharma, and flanked by disciples and attendant bodhisattvas. Other recurring elements are narrative paintings illustrating the life of Śākyamuni (for example the episode of the Great Departure, or the Defeat of Mara, etc.), and edifying episodes of the Buddha’s previous lives, or Jātakas (for example the episode of the Deer King). These can be depicted either in a panel, or in horizontal rows. Scenes illustrating various sūtras are the quintessence of Mogao cave art. They are organized around a main image, and illustrate key episodes of various scriptures in sequence. Each minor scene is often accompanied by a cartouche inscribed with the passage allowing to identify the sūtra chapter or section that is represented. However, many cartouches are badly damaged, blank, or indecipherable. Scenes are either arranged in episodes and separated or surrounded by images of buildings, architectures and landscapes, or in vertical side scenes on side of a main scene (for example the Pure Land), or alternatively in explanatory narrative panels underneath the main scene. There is a wide range of sūtra illustrated in wall paintings, but the most popular are scenes of the Lotus Sūtra, the Vimalakīrti Sūtra, the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra, Maitreya Sūtra, Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, etc.

15Moreover, some paintings include events illustrating the spread of Buddhism, Buddhist historical sites, and occasionally local historical events, such as expeditions and military campaigns.

16Various recurring motifs covering entire wall sections or filling the available space around main scenes constitute an integral part of the caves’ iconographic program. The motif referred to as the “thousand buddhas motif” is one of the most recurrent. It consists of miniature buddhas in various alternating colors arranged in multiple rows that decorate large amounts of wall surface. Many patterns, designs and recurring decorative elements complete the iconographic program of the caves. They are particularly variegated and rich, above or in the background of main images, on the flat, gable, caisson, truncated pyramid or inverted-V ceilings, niche lintels and other architectural elements. They include lotuses, plant motifs and floral designs, pearls, flames, animals, deities and supernatural beings. Images of apsaras are among the most specific iconographic features and decorative elements of the Mogao caves. They are featured dancing or floating in the air, or playing instruments and scattering petals, and the evolution of their iconographic characteristics is of great interest to art historians. The lower section of the rear chamber walls was reserved for portraits of the principal donors who sponsored the construction of the cave, and of their family members.5 Each of them is usually accompanied by a cartouche. They are found around the “central pillar”, below the main images on the east wall, facing the images on the three walls of the rear chamber, and also lining the corridor linking the antechamber to the rear chamber. They are often featured walking in procession toward the main image. Quite small in the oldest caves in which they appear, they progressively grow in size during the Tang dynasty. During the Guiyijun period, at the end of the Tang dynasty, these portraits occupied more prominent positions and were larger in size, becoming as large as (or even larger than) the main buddhas and bodhisattvas painted in the rear chamber. Due to the hierarchic presentation of the donors, and to the data concerning historical figures in the cartouches, these sections of the caves are of great interest for the study of the region’s social, political and religious history.

17Despite the vast research carried out on the Dunhuang Caves since the beginning of the last century, a great number of paintings, sculptures and decorations featuring the caves remain unpublished. In the interest of preservation, only about 20 “representative” caves are currently open to the public, and access to most of the other caves remains limited or is restricted to a relatively small number of scholars.