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Gigantomachies recovered. Two Apulian vases in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg

p. 85-107

Remerciements

I thank Stephan Faust (Hamburg) for intensive discussions in front of the vases and his suggestions on the English translation.


Texte intégral

1. Introduction

1More than 652 Athenian vases with gigantomachy scenes and individual fighting groups of gods and giants are preserved1. These are matched by only 22 vessels from South Italy: 20 from Apulia, two from Campania. One calyx krater and ten volute kraters show multi-figured images2.

2This paper focuses on two depictions of the gigantomachy that have become known recently: one fragment and an incompletely preserved volute krater in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg3. Because of the high quality of theses pieces as regards painting, composition and artistic inventions these objects provide a new perspective on the development of multi-figured representations and the reading of the gigantomachy and their visual language in South Italian vase-painting in the second half of the 4th century BC.

2. Research History

3In 2003, the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg acquired over 150 shards of Apulian red-figure pottery from a German private collection4. Stylistically, they can be attributed to the Darius Painter and must be dated to the period around 340–330 BC.

4In 2002 Konrad Schauenburg presented a first study on the fragments5. He assigned the fragments to three vessels of monumental size: two volute kraters and one lekythos. Even if Schauenburg’s article contained some of the fragments with groups of figures, the overall composition and iconography of the vases remained unsolved. Later on, Schauenburg’s observations were briefly summarized by Andreas Hoffmann6. Furthermore, Christos Ioannitis added the volute krater showing the gigantomachy in the LIMC Supplementum7.

5The first comprehensive study conveying an overview of the research history was carried out by Rolf Hurschmann in the CVA Hamburg 28. As part of the work on the CVA the 150 shards were examined once again in the years 2007 to 2009. This led to some corrections of the identifications stated by Schauenburg and Ioannitis and to an extensive rearrangement. Due to technical reasons – concerning form, curvature, potter’s lines, and thickness – some shards could not be connected to the three vases anymore. In contrast, five monumental vases can now be distinguished: three volute kraters and two lekythoi. In order to get a precise idea of the shape, the composition, as well as the arrangement of the figures, and at least an idea of the visual language of the images it was therefore necessary to reconstruct the vases. The conservation and reconstruction have been carried out by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz in 2009 to 20119. In an article concerning the development, similarities and differences of Athenian and Apulian gigantomachies the present author mentioned the volute crater and the fragment depicting another gigantomachy in 201410.

3. The volute krater Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 2003.130

3.1. Preservation

6The volute krater consists of 66 fragments (fig. 1-4). Foot, parts of the body on side A, on the handle zone A–B and of the lower body, neck on side A and lid, the two handles and three swan finials on the shoulder are lost. The additional colors are in many places completely rubbed or chipped off; some traces have remained, however. Body and neck measure 42,2 cm in diameter, and the extant height of the fragmented crater is now c. 75 cm. Thus, the original height can be reconstructed to c. 1,10 m. The figures are between 10 to 14 cm, the riders and chariots up to 18 cm high.

7On the main sides the neck is decorated with two large images that were once framed by the former handles: Side B shows five dancing Erotes on flowers. On side A three Erotes can still be recognized. A little Eros on the left holds a bowl and sacrifices at a thymiaterion.

3.2. The gigantomachy

8The entire body of the vase is encircled by a depiction of the gigantomachy. This is unique among the South Italian gigantomachies, and there are not many examples in Athenian vase-painting either. On the vessel in Hamburg 34 deities and giants are arranged in 18 fighting groups. Three giants are not preserved, but have to be added as opponents. Including the animals and other creatures there are 67 figures in total. Thus it is the most extensive gigantomachy that is depicted on a Greek vase11.

9The depiction is framed below by a continuous meander consisting of four meander elements alternating with one quadrat with a cross and four circles. The meander is an integral part of the gigantomachy: Beneath the chariot of Apollon on side A some plants grow directly on it (fig. 5), and one of the giants is rising out of it (fig. 6)12. The flowers and blossoms have no compositional function; therefore they have to be understood with regards to content. Above, the scene is framed by a kymation and a bar band extending on the shoulder between the handles.

10Compositional elements like dotted lines, plants, and two trees beneath the handles set the narration into a landscape and create a spatial depth (fig. 3-4). While the dotted lines in white-yellowish color are quite common, the trees with their faded shoots, leaves and fruits rendered in additional colors were formerly clearly more impressive and helped structuring the image13.

11The circumferential arrangement of the figural decoration is an extraordinary feature. At first view the fighting groups act in different directions and, therefore, do not enable a viewer to determine a certain starting point of the action. This is intended by the Darius Painter. Nevertheless, the shape of the vessel structures the image: This particularly applies to the areas between and beneath the handles. Despite its continuous narrative, the gigantomachy scene can be divided into four separate parts, each of which displays a self-contained composition. What is more, there can be no doubt that two four-horse chariots, one on each main side, are focal elements of the whole layout (fig. 1-2). In this regard sides A and B accord with one of the two compositional schemes known from South Italian vase painting, which were used for representations of the gigantomachy14. They are closely related to each other. A first group – dating around 360–340 BC – shows Zeus and Nike in a four-horse chariot with other gods fighting from top down. To this group belong the calyx krater Taranto15, the volute krater St. Petersburg16, and the volute krater New York private collection17. The second group – dating around 340–310 BC – is characterized by a semicircular arrangement of the figures. The quadriga of Zeus and Nike in the center of the upper part is surrounded by fighting groups as can be seen on the volute krater Berlin18, the volute krater Bochum19, the volute krater Geneva20, and two fragments of the volute krater New York21.

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Fig. 1 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side A.

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Fig. 2 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side B.

12The volute crater in Hamburg belongs to this second group. But in comparison to the examples mentioned above the composition is extended and modified. To create a more dynamic and lively image the Darius Painter uses different visual axes in arranging the fighting groups, but also in order to structure the space of the figures as well as the constituent elements of the narrative. The fighting groups themselves form semantic units, which can be deciphered by the viewer. In addition, the image can be divided into four individual scenes featuring coherent compositions. They are connected to each other by moving directions and orientation of single fighting groups. The more extensive and complex scenes are located on the sides A and B.

3.2.1. Side A

13Side A is dominated by a quadriga in a three-quarter view driving from left to right in the center of the upper level (fig. 1). The remains of a raised arm holding a thunderbolt, which extends to the kymation, as well as a wing allow to identify the poorly preserved charioteers as Zeus and Nike. They appear in an almost standardized manner in every Apulian red-figure representation of the gigantomachy. Beneath the chariot two opponents are shown. They have raised their round shields to protect themselves. The left giant bents down and grabs a stone as weapon. The quadriga is accompanied to the left by a flying eagle holding a writhing snake in its claws. It obviously anticipates the victory of Zeus over Gaia.

14Five more fighting groups are clustered all around: A biga drawn by two wild cats – lions or panthers? – drives from the right to the center (fig. 7). The chariot is steered by a goddess wearing a billowing chiton and himation. To her right stands a naked god, his mantle has slipped down. As the heads and all attributes are missing, the two figures cannot be identified with certainty. Most likely, the group refers to the story of scared Hades who fled from the battlefield and was brought back by his wife Persephone. Thus, while Zeus fights with two opponents, no adversary is clearly assigned to the group of Hades and Persephone. On the right, Ares is shown who wears a garment reaching to his knees, a muscle cuirass, greaves, a round shield and a Corinthian helmet that is pushed back (fig. 7)22. His opponent, however, is equipped with a cloak, a spear, a round shield and a Chalcidian helmet. This fighting group not only delimits the scene to side A, but it serves as a link to the scene beneath the handle A–B.

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Fig. 3 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle A–B.

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Fig. 4 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle B–A.

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Fig. 5 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle B–A, Apollo fighting giant with island.

15The chariot of Aphrodite appears below these groups. Two Cupids draw it to the right. The goddess has raised her right arm in order to strike an opponent, whose figure is lost, however, while the two giants who are confronted with Zeus are shown behind her. On the left side Apollon is depicted driving a griffin biga in side view to the right (fig. 5). While the giants mentioned before were fighting in armor, the opponent of Apollon is naked and uses a huge stone as weapon (fig. 8a). A louterion, a palm tree, a temple-like building with eight columns and a three-leaved plant characterize the stone as an island or a landscape, a most unusual motive only known from this vessel. A variation can be found on side B (fig. 8b). Behind the giant a rearing animal with a white-yellow fur pattern, which points to a lion, is depicted23.

16Immediately above the figure of Apollon, his sister Artemis is shown driving a chariot drawn by a pair of deer. As the goddess wears a long dress, a chlamys and a Phrygian cap, and carries a burning torch in her raised hand, she is characterized as Artemis Bendis (fig. 12)24. She fights a giant shown from the back who is already on his knees, with his shield raised.

17In conclusion, side A displays a semicircular composition dominated by the central quadriga of Zeus and characterized by a cluster of giants. At the same time, the scene is linked to the sections beneath the handles B–A by Apollon and A–B by Ares and Aphrodite.

3.2.2. Handle A–B

18The section beneath the handle a–B is lost in large part (fig. 3). Nevertheless, based on the size of the other figures and some fragments, it is possible to reconstruct the composition along general lines: Next to Aphrodite there are head, neck and shoulder of another goddess appear who turns her head to the right. She wears a chiton, and her hair is adorned by a taenia. Because her biga is drawn by two panthers, she can probably be identified as Cybele. Behind the chariot a giant has to be added with certainty. On the upper level a tree divides the scenery. Immediately to the right a small animal head with pointed ears and elongated horns is preserved. It belongs to a biga drawn by goats which, according to an extant thyrsus staff, must have been occupied by Dionysus. His opponent is missing, but he must have been shown under the tree. He presumably formed a matching pair with the opponent of Cybele within the composition.

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Fig. 6–Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle B–A, Hermes fighting giant rising from the ground.

19Beneath the figure of Dionysus another fighting group is depicted, which can be compared to Apollon and his adversary on side A. Besides, it is connected to the composition on side B in the same manner as Cybele is to side A. Again, the giants are rather clustered.

3.2.3. Side B

20Generally, side B bears resemblance to side A regarding its semicircular composition (fig. 2). Once more, the center is occupied by a quadriga. A female head with diadem and scepter or spear no doubt point to Hera who is accompanied by the winged Iris. They fight a giant shown directly below. He stands on tiptoe, while he tosses back his head and protects –– himself with a round shield. He wears an Italo-Corinthian helmet with a long crest.

21A fighting group on foot appears on the right (fig. 9). A giant wearing a wolf skin picks up a rock as a weapon. He fights with Hephaestus, who grasps the head of the giant with his outstretched left arm. In the right hand he holds his blacksmith tongs. It is noteworthy that the god obviously does not use the pliers in combat25. The fighting group beneath Hephaestus consists of a biga pulled by two Pans to the left (fig. 6). The left Pan holds a torch, and the right one carries a lagobolon. The chariot is steered by Hermes wearing himation and petasos. He uses his kerykeion as a weapon. The poorly preserved opponent who is equipped with a tree branch and a fur just rises from the earth26. The next fighting group moves to the left. One figure can be identified as Demeter because her tiara with ears of corn and her crossflare torch. Two wild cats function as the draft animals of the goddesses’ biga. The opponent, the figure of which is poorly preserved, wears a fur. Like another giant on side A he carries an entire island in his raised hands (fig. 8b). On the rock a louterion, possibly a pool, a building with pediment and with two elongated objects – maybe a sanctuary? –, a tree and a building with eight columns are visible. Above this group Poseidon on a winged horse in frontal view is depicted27. Directly in front of him the head and shoulders and parts of the lower body of a giant can be seen. The figure of Poseidon concludes the scene on side B.

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Fig. 7 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side A, Hades and Persephone.

22Between Hera, Iris, Hephaestus and Hermes a key-figure of the gigantomachy is depicted: Heracles (fig. 10). The beardless youthful hero is identifiable by his lion-skin, the club ready to strike his foe and the gorytos and bow on his left side. He attacks a giant who has already dropped to the ground, but who still protects himself with his shield and grabs a stone. At first view, due to his nudity, the fur and the club Heracles looks like a wild giant himself. The subtle design of the Darius Painter becomes evident, howaver, in comparison with the giant wearing a wolf skin who is depicted directly above Heracles.

23Next to Hephaestus there is another fighting group (fig. 11). The giant who is clad in a fur holds a lagobolon in his outstretched hand and looks up to a fine draped woman on the right. She wears a chiton and a himation, a necklace, two large rings on each arm and in her hair a wreath of leaves in her hair. In her arms she holds an altar. To the right a yellow star is partly preserved, whereas the colors of a second star on the left side have completely faded, so that only a shadow remains. The identification of this goddess causes some difficulties: the stars give no indication; they occur quite often in images of the Darius Painter and rarely have any concrete meaning. Different interpretations were proposed by Schauenburg, who argued for Charis, the wife of Hephaestus28, and by Hurschmann, who tentatively identified the figure as Themis, Eunomia, or Dike29. Personifications are not uncommon in South Italian vase painting, and the Darius Painter, in particular, has a preference for such figures. But it should be noted that these figures must be unmistakably and easily identifiable by their iconography or otherwise by the use of inscriptions or graffiti. This must also apply to the figure in question. Seeing that Zeus and his brothers Poseidon and Hades as well as his sister and wife Hera are all present in the upper level of the image, Hestia as a superior deity would be a plausible candidate.

24While on side A Zeus dominates the combat, and the Giants are hard-pressed from all sides, the strength of the combatants is more balanced on side B. Here, Hera and Heracles are represented as the protagonists.

3.2.4. Handle B–A

25In this section the focus is on a double duel that takes place in front of a tree (fig. 4, 12). The fighting group on the left consists of a receding naked and bearded giant, draped in a fur and fighting with a torn tree branch, who is shown in retreat, and a young rider who is outfitted with petasos, a chlamys, boots and a spear. A second giant wearing a mantle and a helmet in the shape of a so-called Phrygian cap with a griffin crest, holding a round shield and a spear belongs to the other group. He attacks his divine opponent who is equipped with a petasos, a chlamys, boots and a spear, as well. In contrast to the other rider this god stands beside his horse. He and his fellow combatant are characterized by the iconography of the Dioscuri Kastor and Polydeukes30.

26In this section the tree serves as a visual axis for the two combats, in which the two Dioscuri participate, respectively. Furthermore, a more open battle is shown here than in the corresponding scene under the handle A–B, whrere the giants are closely crowded together. Finally, the scene is clearly linked to the narrative of side A by the figure of Apollon described above, and the figure of Hermes fulfills the same compositional function on the opposite side B, albeit in a less conspicuous manner. In any case, the gods are turned outwards, while the scene below the handle A–B presents an almost reverse kind of composition, for here a total of five gods is shown storming towards the Giants.

3.3. Artistic innovations

27Concerning the œuvre of the Darius Painter there can be no doubt that this painter was an outstanding, sophisticated artist of high intellect and knowledge. The image on the volute krater in Hamburg perfectly accounts for this appraisal because of the artistic innovations it exhibits. These innovations could be summarized as follows: the Darius Painter is the first artist of a gigantomachy scene to show most of the deities fighting from chariots. Regarding the chariot of Hades and Persephone he not only invented a variation of the theme, but he also created a new visualization of the story of the Hades being brought back to the battlefield by Persephone after his escape. The goddess herself drives the chariot. Besides, in comparison to the numerous representations of Hades raping Persephone in South Italian vase painting31, the theme seems to have a strong ironic implication. The large number of chariots also highlights the deities fighting on foot: Ares, Hephaestus, one of the Dioscuri, Hestia, and Heracles.

28The wide spectrum of draft creatures, too, has a special meaning, for these animals help the viewer to identify the deities, to whom the chariots belong. In addition, a closer look reveals a whole range of fine, elaborated details, which are aesthetically pleasing in themselves. The iconography of Apollon, who stands in the cart of a biga pulled by two griffins, is particularly innovative (fig. 5)32. The biga of Hermes drawn by two Pan seems to be an unusual representation, too, although the god is depicted in a similar way on the situla Foggia, Museo Nazionale Inv. 129339 and the oinochoe Copenhagen, Thorvaldsen’s Museum Inv. 13733. The chariot of Aphrodite, who is accompanied by two Erotes, was invented by the Darius Painter, too, and can be found on pelikai in Turin, Compiègne, and in former Basel art market34. In contrast to the usual iconography Aphrodite has not enchanted her opponent and Eros ties up his hand, like on the volute kraters New York and Berlin35.

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Fig. 8a – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle B–A, island thrown by a giant.

29The Darius Painter obviously liked to investigate new artistic ways not only on terms of iconography, but also of motifs. For instance, while Poseidon is depicted as a horseman in profile on the volute kraters Berlin, Bochum, and Geneva36, the vessel in Hamburg offers a unique representation en face (fig. 13).

30What is more, the appearance of some of the gods in the battle is rather unusual or even exceptional. Of course, Zeus and Nike, Athena and Heracles are the main protagonists also in Athenian gigantomachies. It is absolutely necessary that the three gods and the hero participate in the combat to bring it to a successful end: Zeus is the one whose power is threatened; Athena kills the leader of the giants and thus fulfills the oracle according to which after his death the gods will gain victory; and the mortal Heracles acts as the indispensable right-hand of the Olympians. But on the krater some more deities make their appearance: Hera and Iris, who are shown as occupants of the central quadriga on side B, serve as counterparts to Zeus and Nike. One might wonder why Heracles is depicted next to Hera rather than next to his father Zeus. But this seems to be one of the little narrative ‘tricks’ which the Darius Painter likes to employ so that the image runs contrary to certain expectationson the viewer’s side. The unusual presence of the Dioscuri in the gigantomachy, side B–A (fig. 4, 12), too, requires some explanation. There are only two Athenian vase paintings of the battle, which also include the figures of the divine pair of brothers37. Maybe we are dealing with an additional motif like the one showing the fight of Heracles and Alkyoneus, which was combined with the gigantomachy already some time earlier38. Besides, the Dioscuri are characterized as successful warriors as mentioned in ancient literature39. Probably following literary sources, which denominate Kastor as a horseman40, the Darius Painter chose to show one god sitting on his horse and the other fighting the enemy on foot. Therefore, we may assume that the Darius Painter was well acquainted with different literary traditions, for which reason we may regard him as an intellectual.

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Fig. 8b – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle A–B, island thrown by a giant.

31The œuvre of the Darius Painter is full of newly invented figure motifs and personifications, and the goddess holding up an altar is a good example (fig. 11). On other vases the painter uses inscriptions to name such figures so as to assist the viewer. Yet, there are no traces of writing around the figure on the vessel in Hamburg, which is why we may assume that it was easier for contemporary than for modern archaeologist to identify the goddess in question. As already mentioned above, Hestia would be a likely candidate, as Zeus and his brothers and sisters (Poseidon, Hades, Persephone) appear in the upper part of the scene. There are only a few representations of Hestia standing or perched in front of a fire, an altar or accompanied by torch bearers. In fact, she participates sometimes in the gigantomachy, e.g. on the treasury of Siphnos in Delphi41. But it seems that the Darius Painter could not adopt a canonical motif, especially because already Demeter and Artemis are shown using fire in order to attack their enemies, and some giants themselves fight with burning tree trunks. The artist was probably compelled to create a motif referring to Hestia, which was unambiguous as possible.

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Fig. 9 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side B, Hephaestus fighting giant with wolf skin.

32The depiction of two islands thrown by single giants is extraordinary and absolutely unique (fig. 8a-b)42. Since the late 6th century BC both written sources and images testify that the giants not only fight with spears and swords, but also use tree trunks, torches and stones. For example, the figure of Hermes’ opponent, who has gone down and picks up a simple stone, corresponds to the common scheme43. But the Darius Painter also designed an innovative, more dramatic scene for the same vessel: on the sides A and B two giants hoist a whole island or landscape over the head in order to fling it at Apollon and Demeter, respectively. Buildings, plants, and objects are shown in the minutest details. The islands were certainly integrated into the scene in order to create a dramatic effect, as they visualize the extreme proportions of the giants. But their deeper meaning becomes evident, if they are interpreted as an expression of the special wickedness of the giants, who threaten the cosmic order and have the power to destroy all mankind. Thus the Olympian gods do not only protect themselves, but also the whole world. Accordingly, late antique authors like Claudianus inform us that the giants fling islands against the deities44. Claudianus’ text particularly mentions the giant Porphyrion who tries to tear Delos from the bottom of the sea. Concerning the vase painting it is difficult to decide whether the adversary of Apollon perhaps is about to throw the island Delos, where the god enjoyed special worship. Apparently the Darius Painter knew a now lost literary source on which Claudianus’ text is based, or he invented the subject by himself.

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Fig. 10 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side B, Herakles struggeling.

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Fig. 11 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side B, goddess holding an altar, probably Hestia.

33It is also of great interest to note, what the image does not show: the end of the battle is yet obscure. Although the Olympian gods press the giants by all means, especially when they act top down, but still neither party has gained the victory. Other Apulian gigantomachies are more explicit: The giants depicted on the volute krater Berlin are already defenseless, and the krater Bochum was well as the one in Geneva show the wounds of bleeding and fallen giants45. In contrast, wounded, killed or imprisoned giants – like the one tied up by Eros on the volute kraters Berlin and New York46 – are not depicted on the Hamburg krater, so that the outcome of the battle seems open. Only the opponent of Heracles has gone down to his knees (fig. 10), and Hephaestus has caught his opponent by the hair (fig. 9), a motif that expresses domination. Nevertheless, the ancient viewer must have been well aware of the end of the story, because he knew it from literary sources or narratives. But the image itself also alludes to end the story by representing some giants crowded together.

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Fig. 12 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Handle B–A, Kastor and Polydeukes in battle.

34Even the badly preserved parts of the painting can be approximately reconstructed (fig. 3). In the section below the handle B-A this applies to the opponent of Ares, the chariot of Cybele, Dionysos with his goatchariot, Poseidon struggling with a giant (fig. 13), and the opponent of Demeter. Therefore, the remaining space is very restricted, if we try to determine the original presence of more figures (fig. 3, 14). In any case, we may postulate an opponent for Dionysos, for Cybele and for Aphrodite. These three more figures would perfectly fit into the missing part of the scene. However, this leads to a serious problem that must be explained: the goddess Athena is missing. The figure of Athena and her opponent do not appear anywhere in the extant painting and they would surely have formed a group too large to be added to the section, which is destroyed. The absence of the goddess is quite unique among all multi-figure gigantomachy scenes. It seems implausible to assume that the Darius Painter just forgot to include Athena into the narrative. It is her who manages to kill the leader of the giants, claimed to be immortal, and determines the defeat of the enemy as a result. There are two possible explanations for the goddess’ absence: first, there was a second vase made as counterpart of the Hamburg krater, which showed Athena, so that the two vessels would have to be perceived as a matching pair. But as nearly all Olympian deities of importance have been depicted on the Hamburg krater, one might wonder, who would have been represented together with Athena on the other vase. Second, because of the complex and detailed nature of the image it may have referred to a lost literary narrative of the gigantomachy, which excluded Athena for some reason – maybe a totally different ‘reading’. As the present author has suggested in an earlier article, the painter perhaps used a visual model based on the decoration of the latest peplos of Athena Polias in Athens47. Perhaps the peplos did not show the goddess at all, because she was already present in the form of her cult statue.

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Fig. 13 – Volute krater Inv. 2003.130: Side B, Poseidon on a winged horse.

3.4. Composition

35Along with the iconography the composition of the scene bears testimony to the innovativeness of the Darius Painter. As pointed out, the image can be divided into four separate scenes which correspond to the shape of the volute krater. Each side of the volute krater obviously features a different layout. To give a greater tension to the scene, the artist created sections of close and fierce combat as well as sections where the fighting subsides. Besides, he arranges the figures by means of parallel alignments, like in the case of the Dioscuri (fig. 12), and he employs centripetal or centrifugal movements. Such visual strategies convey complementary messages: while those giants who are surrounded by the enemy will inevitably meet their end, Heracles demonstrates his heroic qualities under the same circumstances (fig. 2). Moreover, the Darius Painter mostly uses two to three superposed levels on which the action unfurls, but in general the transition between these horizontal bands is rather smooth. On the upper level Zeus and his brothers and sisters Hera, Hades, Poseidon and Hestia are assembled. Divine siblings like the Dioscuri (fig. 12) and Artemis and Apollon (fig. 1) are represented next to each other. Likewise the painter unites married couples, as the combined figures of Ares and Aphrodite (fig. 3) and especially of Hades and Persephone (fig. 7) clearly show. Some irony may lie in the fact that Heracles appears in the proximity of Hera on one side of the vessel and not close to his father Zeus, like one might expect.

36The fighting groups are very much varied in detail, with some combatants rendered in quite expressive postures and some, e.g. Hestia (fig. 11), characterized by more restrained movements. In order to link the participants of the individual fights, the painter construed visual axes indicated by the orientation and the perspective of the body parts. He virtually aims at a playful diversity in representation by adopting strategies that can generally be compared to rhetorical and stylistic devices in works of literature. For example, on side A the opponent of Zeus stretches himself so that he stands on tiptoes, while his companion squats on the ground, is like a kind of chiasmus (fig. 2). In contrast, the arrangement of the fighting groups of the Dioscuri could be understood as kind of parallelism (fig. 12). Finally, the presence of Hera, Heracles, Hephaestus, and Hestia on side B would sound like alliteration in the head of an intent viewer. The same goes for the figures of Artemis and Apollon.

37The difference between the ferocity and brute force of the giants, on the one hand, and the legitimate power of the Olympian gods, on the other hand, is further expressed by details of the image. For instance, on side A the figure of Hestia holding an altar on top right contrasts with the giant bottom left who is about to throw an island (fig. 1). The calm, retained composure of the goddess and the fierceness of the giant form a pair of perfect opposites that reminds of antithetic literary construction. For the same reason Heracles wearing his lion skin is depicted nearby the giant with the wolf fur (fig. 2). While the lion skin underlines the heroism of Heracles, the wolf skin must be interpreted as a sign of the brutal fierceness of the enemy48. The boulders in the hands of the giants characterize them as raw, wild and uncivilized creatures fighting against the right order.

38It should be noted that the Darius Painter did not create an arbitrary sequence of fighting groups at all, but was keen to point out the relationships between the different Olympians by referring to the mythical stories about the struggle of the gods and giants. The artist put much effort into creating a detailed, thoroughly composed work, which calls to mind the contrast between civilized order and savagery by all visual means. Of course, even for the ancient viewer it would have been difficult to gain an immediate understanding of the complex iconography and composition, but this is a quality of the visual narrative that was intended by the designer for sure.

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Fig. 14 – A photomontage of the volute krater Inv. 2003.130, handle A–B, and the fragment of a volute krater Inv. 2010.18.

3.5. Further observations

39Individual motifs – especially of the giants (fig. 10) and the groupings – are evocative of the amazonomachy scene on the shield of the Athena Parthenos created by Phidias in the 5th century BC49. In any case, the Darius Painter further developed these motifs by the depiction of three-quarter and rear views.

40Regarding the 18 fighting groups, which are extant, 17 giants actively participate in the battle (14 are already preserved in differing conditions, three are today lost). In accordance with the iconography established in the late 6th /early 5th century BC the giants are shown naked to a large extent, even if some wear animal skins50 or differeing armor and a cape lined with a dark fringe51. Due to the state of preservation the accounterment of the rest remains unclear, however. Of the eight remaining heads four are bearded. The giants defend themselves with round shields and use spears, torches, tree trunks, stones or islands, and only two carry a sword belt with a sword. In general, they are quite uniformly dressed and barely distinguishable from each other52. Their helmets are of special interest, however, for the majority wears helmets, which are South Italian variations of Greek types. These are decorated with long feathers like the helmet of warriors in Paestan tomb paintings and bronze examples from South Italy. The opponent of Heracles wears an Italo-Chalcidian helmet with three feathers (fig. 10), which corresponds to weaponry from the Lucanian area, while the giant fighting Polydeukes has an uncommon helmet in the form of a Phrygian cap with griffin crest53 (fig. 12). It is difficult to say what the representation of these realistic elements implies: does it hint at conflicts of the Greeks with the indigenous populations, such as are known to have intensified in the 4th century BC? The Apulian workshops, which also produced the gigantomachy vases, were mainly located in Canosa, a place of many contacts with Daunians, Messapians, and Peucetians. Obviously, the importance of the gigantomachy theme in Apulia has been underestimated so far. Who were the recipients of these images and ideas?

Image

Fig. 15 – Fragment volute krater Inv. 2010.18: Athena fighting the giant Enkelados (or Alkyoneus).

4. Fragment of a volute krater Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 2010.18

4.1. Preservation

41The Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg-keeps a 17,5 cm high and 15 cm wide fragment (fig. 15), which must have belonged to a second volute krater of the same dimensions like the one discussed before and which can be attributed to the Darius Painter as well. Interestingly, it preserves a section of yet another gigantomachy scene. Of the additional colors only dark-red survives, but traces of white and yellow are still visible.

42Ioannitis combined in the LIMC Supplementum this fragment with the above discussed volute krater54. In any case, the fragment does surely not belong to this vessel for several reasons55. First, the two objects differ in depth, the color of the clay and the potter’s lines. Second, the proportions of the giant and of Athena do not correspond to the scale of the figures of the krater. Third, the giant does not resemble his counterparts at all. Fourth, the fragment would not fit into the only considerably lacuna of the vase body, i.e. the section beneath the handle A–B, especially because the continuity of the meander below would be served, as can be proved by every attempt to insert it56. Finally, Athena as one of the protagonists of the story would not have been depicted beneath a handle, anyway.

4.2. Iconography

43A meander, of which a square with inserted cross and four circles framed by one meander element are preserved, constitutes the lower border of the image. Above a group of two fighting figures and the remains of a third57 survive. The goddess Athena wearing a peplos, the aegis with the gorgoneion, a helmet, and a sword is shown on the right. She seizes her opponent by the head. The winged and snakelegged giant is naked. Over his left arm an animal skin or a mantle is draped; the additional colors are almost completely lost. In his right hand he holds a tree trunk or perhaps a torch. His body is shown in frontal view, his head turns to his left side. He has brown hair and beard with black curls. Pain and fear are mirrored on his face. A spear has injured him, and he is bleeding from a wound in his abdomen. Because he is fighting with Athena, the giant can be identified as Enkelados (or Alkyoneus). A knee and foot of a second giant are preserved above his head.

44Here, a giant with snake-legs is represented for the first time in Apulian vase painting. Only on the volute krater Geneva58 – dated to c. 320 BC – shows this motif, too, albeit in a less elaborate manner. Besides, it is plausible to assume that this fragment belonged to a gigantomachy scene featuring a semicircular composition.

5. Conclusion

45The volute krater Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 2003.130 is an exceptional vase, created and painted by the Darius Painter around 340 BC. Its decoration must be included in the list of the most complex, multi-figured representations in South Italian vase painting. In particular, the image is outstanding among ancient gigantomachy scenes. It bears testimony to extensive knowledge of the painter, his ingenuity in creating innovative motifs as well as complex compositions. It is a new piece in the puzzle of the œuvre of the Darius Painter. At the same time the image allows us to draw some conclusions about how vase paintings addressed the contemporary viewers. The overall design and the meticulous execution of the details suggest a lost model, be it a monumental painting, a work of literature or maybe the peplos of Athena Polias. Apart from the artistic innovations the absence of Athena is just as remarkable as the representations of South Italian variants of Greek armor for the giants. Who were the recipients of this vase? Does it reflect a conflict between native Greeks and an Italic indigenous population in northern Apulia in the time from 350–320 BC? Who considered himself or herself as a Greek, and who did not? The volute krater clearly leads to a variety of new issues and questions about the South Italian societies in the second half of the 4th century BC.

Bibliographie

List of publications

von Bothmer 1990: D. von Bothmer (ed.), Glories of the Past. Ancient Art from the Shelby White and Leon Levy Collection, New York, 1990/91.

Carpenter 1986: T. H. Carpenter, Dionysian Imagery in Archaic Greek Art: its development in black-figure vase painting, Oxford, 1986.

Carpenter 2003: T. H. Carpenter, Dionysian Imagery in Fifth-century Athens, Oxford, 2003.

Giuliani 1995: L. Giuliani, Tragik, Trauer und Trost. Bildervasen für eine apulische Totenfeier, Berlin, 1995.

Giuliani, Muth 2005: L. Giuliani, S. Muth, Der Barberinische Faun, in Die zweite Haut. Panther-, Wolfs-und Ferkelfell im Bild des Satyrn. Exhibition catalogue, Munich, 2005, p. 27-35.

Hildebrandt 2012: F. Hildebrandt, W. Hartmann, Bildkunst des Darius-Malers. Neue Vasenforschungen im Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, Antike Welt 2012 H. 1, p. 61-66.

Hildebrandt 2014: F. Hildebrandt, The Gigantomachy in Attic and Apulian Vase-Painting. A New Look at Similarities, Differences and Origins, in J. Oakley (ed.), Athenian Potters and Painters III, Oxford, 2014, p. 73-80.

Hildebrandt (in preparation): F. Hildebrandt, Is there a context behind the context? A Group of Apulian redfigure vases in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, in D. Rodriguez-Perez (ed.), Greek Art in Context. International Conference at the University in Edinburgh, 7-9 April 2014 (in preparation).

Hoffmann 2003: A. Hoffmann, Neuerwerbungen der Antikensammlung, Jahrbuch des Museums für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg 20–22, 2001–2003, 206.

LIMC II: Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae II, Zurich–Munich, 1984, p. 618-753 s.v. Artemis (L. Kahil).

LIMC IV: Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae IV, Zurich–Munich, 1988, p. 191-270 s.v. Gigantes (F. Vian, M. B. Moore).

Mayo 1982: M. E. Mayo, The Art of South Italy: Vases from Magna Graecia, exhibition Virginia Museum, Richmond, 1982.

Schauenburg 1974: K. Schauenburg, Bendis in Unteritalien? Zu einer Nestoris von ungewöhnlicher Form, JdI 89, 1974, p. 137-186.

Schauenburg 1984: K. Schauenburg, Zu einer Hydria des Baltimoremalers in Kiel, JdI 99, 1984, p. 127-160.

Schauenburg 2002: K. Schauenburg, Kraterfragmente in einer kleinen Sammlung, Studien zur unteritalischen Vasenmalerei IV/V, 2002, p. 39-55.

Strocka 1967: V. M. Strocka, Piräusreliefs und Parthenosschild: Versuche einer Wiederherstellung der Amazonomachie des Phidias, Berlin, 1967.

Photo credits

© Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg; Foto 1–4, 10, 13–15 Maria Thrun / 5–9, 11–12 Frank Hildebrandt

Notes de bas de page

1 These numbers are taken from the BAPD: 524 Attic black-figure, 128 Attic red-figure vases. For the development of gigantomachies in Athenian and Apulian vase painting see also Hildebrandt 2014.

2 Giuliani 1995, p. 115-116.

3 Fragment Inv. 2010.18/volute krater Inv. 2003.130.

4 Schauenburg 2002, p. 127. Regarding the question whether these fragments belong to the same context, see Hildebrandt (in preparation).

5 Schauenburg 2002.

6 Hoffmann 2003, p. 206. He assigned the lekythos to the Underworld Painter. New research shows that it rather is a vase of the Darius Painter. See R. Hurschmann in: CVA Hamburg 2, p. 69-72 pl. 46-49.

7 LIMC Supplementum, 2009, s.v. Gigantes p. 223-224 add. 10 (Chr. Ioannitis). The drawing published by Ioannitis is incorrect for several reasons: It includes the fragment Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 2010.18 which cannot belong to the volute krater due to technical and stylistical criteria. This issue will be discussed below. – The vase is further mentioned in Thes-CRA IV, 2005, p. 380 no. 36 b pl. 46; p. 388 no. 60 g pl. 50; p. 480 no. 36 c (A. Kossatz-Deissmann); LIMC Supplementum, 2009, s.v. Eos, p. 200 add. 2 (C. Weiss).

8 CVA Hamburg 2, p. 34-38 pl. 17-23. Due to the guidelines of the CVA Hurschmann described individual figures or battle groups, so that questions of composition and significance remained unanswered.

9 Hildebrandt 2012.

10 Hildebrandt 2014.

11 Only the earliest vase paintings from the Athenian Acropolis (Carpenter [1986] 55-75; LIMC IV p. 215-216 no. 104-106.) and the Amphora Paris, Musée du Louvre Inv. S 1677 by the Suessula Painter (ARV² 1344, 1; 1691; Para 482; Add 183; LIMC IV, p. 230 no. 322.) show a noteworthy number of figures as well.

12 For this motif also compare the volute crater St. Petersburg (see n. 17).

13 This feature can be found on other vases by the Darius Painter too, e.g. the volute krater Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 2003.129. In this case, the painter used two ships and a tree: CVA Hamburg 2, pl. 14.1-2.

14 Two representations cannot be clearly assigned to one of these groups: The depiction on the volute crater Bari, Museo Archeologico Inv. 4399 (RVAp 421, 16/44; LIMC IV, p. 235 no. 392; circle of the Lykurgos Painter) shows a shortened version with two fighting groups. Although the figure of Zeus is not shown, the god’s presence can be deduced by his thunderbolt. The composition of the scene on the fragmentary volute krater New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Inv. 1919.192.81 Fr. 6.13. 17 (RVAp 402, 15/34; LIMC IV, p. 235 no. 393; Mayo 1982, p. 110 no. 33; Painter of the Dublin Situla) is likewise uncertain.

15 Taranto, Museo Nazionale Inv. 52265: RVAp 39, 2/24; LIMC IV, p. 234 no. 390; circle of the Painter of the Birth of Dionysus.

16 St. Petersburg, Ermitage Inv. 1714: RVAp 416, 16/12; LIMC IV, p. 235 no. 391; Lykurgos Painter.

17 New York, private collection: RVAp Suppl. 2, 135, 17/18; Trendall 1989, p. 88 fig. 199; Bothmer 1990, no. 126; De Schulthess-Painter. A special feature is the presence of Gaia in the lower section of the image.

18 Berlin, SMPK Antikensammlung Inv. 1984.44: Giuliani 1995, p. 111-118; Darius Painter.

19 Bochum, Kunstsammlung der Universität Inv. S 993: RVAp 534, 18/287; LIMC IV, p. 235 no. 396; Underworld Painter.

20 Geneva, Barbier-Müller Collection, former Brussels art market and collection Deletaille: RVAp Suppl. 1, 152,27/23b; LIMC IV, p. 235 no. 398; Schauenburg 1984, p 139-140 fig. 14; Baltimore Painter.

21 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art Inv. Inv. 1919.192.81 fr. 4.5. 7.10. 11.19/1.7. 22.46: RVAp 867, 27/31; LIMC IV, p. 236 no. 399; Baltimore Painter.

22 Ares is shown on the volute kraters Bochum (see n. 20 upper right) and Geneva (see n. 21 bottom right) as well.

23 On the volute krater Bari (see n. 15) there is also a lion.

24 See LIMC II, p. 690-963; Schauenburg 1974, 137-186.

25 On Attic vases Hephaestus uses the blacksmith tongs in order to burn his opponent with glowing metal. According to literary sources the opponent of Hephaestus is the giant Mimas, e.g. Apollod. bibl. 1, 6, 2.

26 The motif can be found on the volute krater St. Petersburg (see n. 17).

27 Poseidon is an integral part of all Apulian Gigantomachy scenes with semicircular composition.

28 Schauenburg 2002, p. 42.

29 CVA Hamburg 2, p. 37-38.

30 Kastor and Polydeukes seem to be characterized more often in this twofold way, i.e. as a fighter on foot and a rider. Taking into account Hom. Il. 3, 237; Hom. Od. 11, 300; Hom. Hym. in Diosk. 33, 3; Pind. Isthm. 1, 27 and Pyth. 5, 10; Theokr. 20, 79.136 the horseman should perhaps be identified as Kastor.

31 Hydria Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg Inv. 1982.4: CVA Hamburg 2, p. 51-53 pl. 34-35.

32 The iconography is known from the reliefs on Roman sarcophagi, but it is unique in Greek vase painting.

33 CVA Hamburg 2, p. 37.

34 Turin, Museo Nazionale Inv. 4149: RVAp II 490 no. 25; CVA Turin 1 IV, D pl. 13. – Compiègne, Musée Inv. 963: RVAp II 490 no. 26; CVA Compiègne IV D b pl. 22, 9. – former Basel art market Palladion: RVAp Suppl. I 73 no. 26a; A. Cambitoglou, RdA 5, 1981, 11 no. 21 fig. 41.

35 See n. 22, 19.

36 See n. 19-21. – Whether the rider on the fragment New York (see n. 22) is Poseidon, is difficult to determine. He wears a muscle cuirass like Ares on the volute krater Hamburg, but Ares as horseman is rather uncommon.

37 Pelike Athens, National Museum Inv. 1333: ARV 2 1337, 8; Para 481; Add. 183; LIMC IV, 1988, p. 230 no. 319. – Amphora, Musée du Louvre Inv. S 1677: ARV 2 1344, 1; 1691; Para 482; Add. 183; LIMC IV, 1988, p. 230 no. 322.

38 LIMC I, 1981, p. 559.563-564.

39 Apollod. Bibl. 3, 11, 2; Pind. Nem. 10, 170; Theokr. 20, 79; Hom. Il. 3, 237; Hom. Od. 11,300.

40 See n. 30.

41 Here, she appears next to Hephaestus; see LIMC IV, p. 197-198 no. 2.

42 In the Athenian vase painting Poseidon is often shown throwing islands. On the column krater Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum Inv. IV 688 (ARV² 255, 2; LIMC IV, p. 233 no. 361.) the island is depicted with creatures of the sea – an octopus and a dolphin – and of the land – a deer, a snake and a scorpion –, but not with architecture or plants.

43 It can also be found on the volute kraters Berlin (see n. 19), Bochum (see n. 20), and Geneva (see n. 21).

44 Claudianus 37, 115–118.

45 See n. 19-21.

46 See n. 19, 22.

47 Hildebrandt 2014, 77. Around 400/390 BC the Pronomos Painter created the last Attic depictions of the Gigantomachy. There is a gap of one generation – at least 25 to 30 years – between the Athenian vase paintings and the South Italian ones. So in painted pottery there seems to be no continuos iconographic tradition. This leads to the question whether the Gigantomachy was represented in other media, which could serve as models. In fact, relatively few images are known from Southern Italy and Etruria, see LIMC IV, p. 236-239 no. 405-443. However, at Athens the peplos of Athena Polias, the metopes on the Parthenon, and the scene on the inside of the shield of Athena Parthenos were continuously on display. In addition, literary interest in the subject had significantly increased since the 5th century BC. Therefore, the iconography of the volute krater Hamburg may be influenced by both the famous Athenian artworks and literature. – For Athenian images of the Gigantomachy see the upcoming book by Marion Meyer, who was so kind as to let me read her manuscript.

48 Giuliani, Muth 2005, p. 28-35.

49 See Strocka 1967. The examination of the templates of the individual motifs is not yet complete.

50 In the fighting groups on side B of Hephaistos, Hermes (?), Hestia, on side B–A of Kastor.

51 In the fighting groups on side A of Artemis, and two of Zeus and Nike, on side A–B of Ares, on side B of Hera and Iris, Heracles, and on side B–A of Polydeukes.

52 Carpenter 2003, p. 23-24: «civilized and barbarian giants».

53 This type of helmet is also worn by two giants on the calyx crater Taranto (see n. 16) and by the opponent of Athena on the volute crater Berlin (see n. 19).

54 See n. 7.

55 See n. 9-10.

56 Serving as a photographic proof fig. 14 shows a wrong (!) reconstruction with the fragment inserted in the lacuna. The single elements of the meander are marked with dots.

57 The lost figure probably was similar to the giant fighting Poseidon on the volute krater Bochum (see n. 20).

58 See n. 22.

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