Table des matières

• Who is What Works in Conservation for?
• The Conservation Evidence project
• Which conservation interventions are included?
• How we review the literature
• What does What Works in Conservation include?
• Expert assessment of the evidence
• Categorization of interventions
• How to use What Works in Conservation

1. AMPHIBIAN CONSERVATION

• Expert assessors

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Legal protection of species
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers
• Likely to be beneficial
• Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
• Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
• 1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management
• Manage silviculture practices in plantations
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Manage cutting regime
• Manage grazing regime
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management
• Likely to be beneficial
• Manage ditches
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp

• Likely to be beneficial
• Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
• Modify gully pots and kerbs
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Install barrier fencing along roads
• Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use signage to warn motorists
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads

• 1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
• Likely to be beneficial
• Reduce impact of amphibian trade
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
• Likely to be beneficial
• Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
• Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Leave coarse woody debris in forests
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
• Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
• Thin trees within forests

• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Beneficial
• Regulate water levels
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
• Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
• Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)

• 1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species
• Beneficial
• Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
• Likely to be beneficial
• Remove or control fish population by catching
• Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
• Remove or control invasive viperine snake
• Remove or control mammals
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Remove or control fish using Rotenone
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Exclude fish with barriers
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Reduce competition from native amphibians
• Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
• Likely to be beneficial
• Control invasive plants
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease–chytridiomycosis
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Add salt to ponds
• Immunize amphibians against infection
• Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
• Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
• Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
• Use gloves to handle amphibians
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
• Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease–ranaviruses
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 1.9.1 Agricultural pollution
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
• Plant riparian buffer strips
• Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.9.2 Industrial pollution
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Create microclimate and microhabitat refuges
• Maintain ephemeral ponds
• Beneficial
• Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Retain buffer zones around core habitat
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Protect habitats for amphibians
• Retain connectivity between habitat patches

• 1.12.1 Terrestrial habitat
• Beneficial
• Replant vegetation
• Likely to be beneficial
• Clear vegetation
• Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
• Create refuges
• Restore habitat connectivity
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Change mowing regime
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 1.12.2 Aquatic habitat
• Beneficial
• Create ponds (amphibians in general)
• Create ponds (frogs)
• Create ponds (natterjack toads)
• Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
• Create wetlands
• Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
• Restore wetlands
• Likely to be beneficial
• Create ponds (great crested newts)
• Create ponds (green toads)
• Create ponds (toads)
• Remove specific aquatic plants
• Restore ponds
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 1.13.1 Translocate amphibians
• Likely to be beneficial
• Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
• Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
• Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
• Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
• Translocate amphibians (toads)
• Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Translocate amphibians (frogs)
• 1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases
• Likely to be beneficial
• Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
• Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
• Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
• Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
• Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
• Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
• Head-start amphibians for release
• Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
• Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
• Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
• Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)
• Provide education programmes about amphibians
• Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information

2. BAT CONSERVATION

• Expert assessors

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Protect brownfield sites
• Provide foraging habitat in urban areas
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 2.2.1 Land use change
• Likely to be beneficial
• Protect or create wetlands as foraging habitat for bats
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Retain or plant trees on agricultural land to replace foraging habitat
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.2.2 Intensive farming
• Likely to be beneficial
• Convert to organic farming
• Encourage agroforestry
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Introduce agri-environment schemes

• Beneficial
• Switch off turbines at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities
• Likely to be beneficial
• Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Deter bats from turbines using radar
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Install underpasses as road crossing structures for bats
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing
• Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats
• Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 2.6.1 Hunting
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.6.2 Guano harvesting
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.6.3 Logging and wood harvesting
• Likely to be beneficial
• Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
• Use selective harvesting/reduced impact logging instead of clearcutting
• Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
• Thin trees within forests
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Impose restrictions on cave visits
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use cave gates to restrict public access
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use prescribed burning

• 2.9.1 Invasive species
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Remove invasive plant species
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Translocate to predator or disease free areas
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.9.2 White-nose syndrome
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 2.10.1 Domestic and urban waste water
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
• 2.10.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.10.3 Light and noise pollution
• Likely to be beneficial
• Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit
• Minimize excess light pollution
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 2.10.4 Timber treatments
• Beneficial
• Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Restrict timing of treatment

• Likely to be beneficial
• Provide artificial roost structures for bats

• No evidence found (no assessment)

3. BIRD CONSERVATION

• Expert assessors

• Likely to be beneficial
• Legally protect habitats for birds
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Ensure connectivity between habitat patches

• Likely to be beneficial
• Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Angle windows to reduce bird collisions
• Mark windows to reduce bird collisions

• 3.4.1 All farming systems
• Beneficial
• Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
• Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
• Likely to be beneficial
• Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
• Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
• Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
• Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
• Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
• Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
• Leave refuges in fields during harvest
• Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
• Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
• Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Control scrub on farmland
• Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
• Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
• Plant new hedges
• Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
• Take field corners out of management
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.4.2 Arable farming
• Likely to be beneficial
• Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
• Leave overwinter stubbles
• Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
• Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
• Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Reduce tillage
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Implement mosaic management
• Increase crop diversity to benefit birds
• Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Create beetle banks
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
• Revert arable land to permanent grassland
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.4.3 Livestock farming
• Likely to be beneficial
• Delay mowing date on grasslands
• Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
• Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
• Maintain traditional water meadows
• Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
• Plant cereals for whole crop silage
• Reduce grazing intensity
• Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
• Maintain upland heath/moor
• Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
• Provide short grass for waders
• Raise mowing height on grasslands
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use traditional breeds of livestock
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Maintain traditional orchards
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.4.5 Aquaculture
• Likely to be beneficial
• Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
• Disturb birds at roosts
• Provide refuges for fish within ponds
• Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
• Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
• Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
• Translocate birds away from fish farms
• Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Disturb birds using foot patrols
• Spray water to deter birds from ponds
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Scare birds from fish farms

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility

• 3.6.1 Verges and airports
• Likely to be beneficial
• Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Mow roadside verges
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons
• Beneficial
• Mark power lines
• Likely to be beneficial
• Bury or isolate power lines
• Insulate electricity pylons
• Remove earth wires from power lines
• Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Thicken earth wires
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Add perches to electricity pylons
• Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
• Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines

• 3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict
• Scare fish-eating birds from areas to reduce conflict
• Beneficial
• Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’
• Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
• Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’
• Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
• Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
• Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
• Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers
• Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
• Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch
• Beneficial
• Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
• Likely to be beneficial
• Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
• Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
• Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
• Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
• Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
• Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
• Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
• Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
• Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
• Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines
• Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
• Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Provide paths to limit disturbance
• Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
• Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
• Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Habituate birds to human visitors
• Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
• Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
• Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Clear or open patches in forests
• Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
• Employ grazing in natural grasslands
• Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
• Manage water level in wetlands
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (forests)
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting natural grasslands)
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting semi-natural grasslands/pastures)
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (shrublands)
• Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
• Thin trees within forests
• Use prescribed burning (grasslands)
• Use prescribed burning (pine forests)
• Use prescribed burning (savannahs)
• Use prescribed burning (shrublands)
• Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Clearcut and re-seed forests
• Coppice trees
• Fertilise grasslands
• Manage woodland edges for birds
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)
• Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)
• Plant trees to act as windbreaks
• Plough habitats
• Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
• Remove coarse woody debris from forests
• Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
• Re-seed grasslands
• Use environmentally sensitive flood management
• Use fire suppression/control
• Use greentree reservoir management
• Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
• Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
• Use variable retention management during forestry operations
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Apply herbicide to mid-and understorey vegetation
• Treat wetlands with herbicides
• Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
• Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Beneficial
• Restore or create forests
• Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
• Likely to be beneficial
• Restore or create grassland
• Restore or create traditional water meadows
• Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Restore or create shrubland
• Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
• Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species
• Beneficial
• Control mammalian predators on islands
• Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
• Likely to be beneficial
• Control avian predators on islands
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Control invasive ants on islands
• Reduce predation by translocating predators
• Evidence not assessed
• Control predators not on islands
• 3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Distribute poison bait using dispensers
• Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
• Use repellents on baits
• Evidence not assessed
• Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
• 3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
• Likely to be beneficial
• Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
• Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks
• Protect bird nests using electric fencing
• Use artificial nests that discourage predation
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Guard nests to prevent predation
• Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
• Protect nests from ants
• Use multiple barriers to protect nests
• Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
• Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
• Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
• 3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
• Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
• Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
• 3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
• Likely to be beneficial
• Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Protect nest sites from competitors
• Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
• Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
• Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)
• Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
• Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
• 3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
• Likely to be beneficial
• Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
• Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
• Remove problematic vegetation
• Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
• 3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease
• Likely to be beneficial
• Remove/control adult brood parasites
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
• Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens
• Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests
• Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)
• Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)
• Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)
• 3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests

• 3.12.1 Industrial pollution
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Relocate birds following oil spills
• Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Clean birds after oil spills
• 3.12.2 Agricultural pollution
• Likely to be beneficial
• Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
• Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
• Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
• Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
• 3.12.4 Excess energy
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
• Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
• Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
• Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms
• Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl

• 3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Rehabilitate injured birds
• Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
• Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
• 3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites
• Beneficial
• Provide artificial nests (falcons)
• Provide artificial nests (owls)
• Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
• Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
• Likely to be beneficial
• Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
• Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
• Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
• Provide artificial nests (ground-and tree-nesting seabirds)
• Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
• Provide artificial nests (raptors)
• Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
• Guard nests
• Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
• Provide artificial nests (grebes)
• Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
• Provide artificial nests (parrots)
• Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
• Provide artificial nests (rails)
• Provide artificial nests (rollers)
• Provide artificial nests (swifts)
• Provide artificial nests (trogons)
• Provide artificial nests (waders)
• Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
• Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
• Provide nesting material for wild birds
• Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
• Repair/support nests to support breeding
• Use differently-coloured artificial nests
• 3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild
• Likely to be beneficial
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
• Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
• 3.14.4 Provide supplementary food
• Beneficial
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
• Likely to be beneficial
• Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
• Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Provide perches to improve foraging success
• Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
• Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
• Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
• Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
• Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
• 3.14.5 Translocations
• Beneficial
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
• Likely to be beneficial
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
• Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
• Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
• Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
• Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
• Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
• Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 3.15.1 Captive breeding
• Likely to be beneficial
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
• Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
• Freeze semen for artificial insemination
• Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
• Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
• Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
• Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
• Evidence not assessed
• Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?
• 3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals
• Likely to be beneficial
• Provide supplementary food after release
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Clip birds’ wings on release
• Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
• Release birds in groups
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
• Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
• Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’
• Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release
• Use appropriate populations to source released populations
• Use ‘flying training’ before release
• Use holding pens at release sites
• Use microlites to help birds migrate

4. FARMLAND CONSERVATION

• Expert assessors

• Beneficial
• Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
• Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
• Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
• Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
• Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
• Likely to be beneficial
• Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
• Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
• Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
• Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
• Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
• Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
• Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
• Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
• Plant new hedges
• Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
• Provide nest boxes for birds
• Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
• Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Beneficial
• Create skylark plots
• Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)
• Likely to be beneficial
• Create beetle banks
• Leave overwinter stubbles
• Reduce tillage
• Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
• Create rotational grass or clover leys
• Increase crop diversity
• Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
• Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
• Plant nettle strips
• Sow rare or declining arable weeds
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option
• Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
• Take field corners out of management

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Maintain traditional orchards
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Beneficial
• Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
• Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
• Likely to be beneficial
• Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
• Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
• Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
• Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)
• Maintain upland heath/moorland
• Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
• Restore or create traditional water meadows
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
• Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)
• Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
• Maintain wood pasture and parkland
• Plant cereals for whole crop silage
• Raise mowing height on grasslands
• Restore or create upland heath/moorland
• Restore or create wood pasture
• Use traditional breeds of livestock
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
• Provide short grass for birds
• Use mixed stocking

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Beneficial
• Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
• Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
• Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
• Likely to be beneficial
• Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
• Restrict certain pesticides
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Make selective use of spring herbicides

• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
• Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Use scaring devices (e. g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species

• Likely to be beneficial
• Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Create scrapes and pools
• Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
• Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
• Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Likely to be beneficial
• Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Control scrub
• Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
• Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Control bracken
• Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
• Control mink
• Provide medicated grit for grouse

• No evidence found (no assessment)
• Evidence not assessed
• Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers

5. FOREST CONSERVATION

• Expert assessors

• 5.1.1 Housing and urban areas
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.1.2 Tourism and recreation areas
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 5.2.1 Livestock farming
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Prevent livestock grazing in forests
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests
• Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting
• Beneficial
• Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants
• Likely to be beneficial
• Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants
• Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees
• Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees
• Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
• Use summer instead of winter harvesting
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Remove woody debris after timber harvest
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees
• Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on nonvascular plants
• Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.4.2 Harvest forest products
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Adopt certification
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.4.3 Firewood
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 5.5.1 Changing fire frequency
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants
• Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.5.2 Water management
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity
• Use group-selection harvesting
• Use shelterwood harvesting
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)
• Use herbicides to thin trees
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use thinning followed by prescribed fire
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 5.6.1 Invasive plants
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants
• Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.6.2 Native plants
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.6.3 Herbivores
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.6.4 Rodents
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Control rodents
• 5.6.5 Birds
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Control birds

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Maintain/create buffer zones
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• No evidence found (no assessment)

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Adopt community-based management to protect forests
• Legal protection of forests
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Thin trees after wildfire
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Remove burned trees
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Sow tree seeds after wildfire
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Restore wood pasture (e. g. introduce grazing)
• 5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Apply herbicides after restoration planting
• Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting
• Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting
• Use selective thinning after restoration planting
• 5.10.4 Restore forest community
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal
• Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity
• Sow tree seeds
• Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 5.10.6 Increase soil fertility
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Add organic matter
• Use fertilizer
• Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Add lime to the soil to increase fertility
• Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Enhance soil compaction

• Beneficial
• Prepare the ground before tree planting
• Use mechanical thinning before or after planting
• Likely to be beneficial
• Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting
• Use herbicide after tree planting
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use prescribed fire after tree planting
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates
• Add lime to the soil after tree planting
• Add organic matter after tree planting
• Cover the ground with straw after tree planting
• Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)
• Manage woody debris before tree planting
• Use shading for planted trees
• Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees
• Use weed mats to protect planted trees
• Water seedlings
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting
• Use different planting or seeding methods
• Use fertilizer after tree planting
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• No evidence found (no assessment)

6. SOME ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF FRESHWATER INVASIVE SPECIES

• Expert assessors

• 6.1.1 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides
• Beneficial
• Chemical control using herbicides
• Likely to be beneficial
• Flame treatment
• Physical removal
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores
• Use of hydrogen peroxide
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 6.1.2 Water primrose Ludwigia spp
• Likely to be beneficial
• Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores
• Chemical control using herbicides
• Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Physical removal
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 6.1.3 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus
• Likely to be beneficial
• Chemical control using herbicides
• Physical removal
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 6.1.4 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii
• Beneficial
• Chemical control using herbicides
• Decontamination to prevent further spread
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use lightproof barriers to control plants
• Use salt water to kill plants
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Use a combination of control methods
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Use dyes to reduce light levels
• Use grazing to control plants
• Use hot foam to control plants
• Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 6.2.1 Asian clams
• Beneficial
• Add chemicals to the water
• Change salinity of water
• Mechanical removal
• Likely to be beneficial
• Change temperature of water
• Clean equipment
• Use of gas-impermeable barriers
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Reduce oxygen in water
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 6.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids
• Likely to be beneficial
• Change salinity of the water
• Change water temperature
• Dewatering (drying out) habitat
• Exposure to parasites
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Add chemicals to water
• Change water pH
• Control movement of gammarids
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 6.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish
• Likely to be beneficial
• Add chemicals to the water
• Sterilization of males
• Trapping and removal
• Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Create barriers
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Encouraging predators
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 6.4.1 Brown and black bullheads
• Beneficial
• Application of a biocide
• Likely to be beneficial
• Netting
• No evidence found (no assessment)
• 6.4.2 Ponto-Caspian gobies
• Beneficial
• Changing salinity
• Likely to be beneficial
• Use of barriers to prevent migration
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 6.5.1 Red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta
• Likely to be beneficial
• Direct removal of adults
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Application of a biocide
• No evidence found (no assessment)

• 6.6.1 American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana
• Likely to be beneficial
• Biological control using native predators
• Direct removal of adults
• Direct removal of juveniles
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Application of a biocide
• No evidence found (no assessment)

7. SOME ASPECTS OF ENHANCING NATURAL PEST CONTROL

• Expert assessors

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Alter the timing of insecticide use
• Delay herbicide use
• Incorporate parasitism rates when setting thresholds for insecticide use
• Use pesticides only when pests or crop damage reach threshold levels
• Evidence not assessed
• Convert to organic farming

• Likely to be beneficial
• Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
• Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Plant new hedges
• Use alley cropping
• Evidence not assessed
• Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations

• Beneficial
• Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
• Unlikely to be beneficial
• Create beetle banks
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals

• Likely to be beneficial
• Exclude ants that protect pests
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Allow natural regeneration of ground cover beneath perennial crops
• Isolate colonies of beneficial ants

• Likely to be beneficial
• Grow plants that compete with damaging weeds
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Delay mowing or first grazing date on pasture or grassland
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Use grazing instead of cutting for pasture or grassland management
• Use mixed pasture

8. ENHANCING SOIL FERTILITY

• Expert assessors

• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Change the timing of manure application
• Likely to be ineffective or harmful
• Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally

• Likely to be beneficial
• Control traffic and traffic timing
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Change tillage practices
• Convert to organic farming
• Plant new hedges
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Change the timing of ploughing

• Beneficial
• Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
• Grow cover crops when the field is empty
• Use crop rotation
• Likely to be beneficial
• Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
• Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Add mulch to crops
• Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
• Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
• Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
• Incorporate leys into crop rotation
• Retain crop residues
• Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
• Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
• Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
• Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
• Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
• Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
• Encourage foraging waterfowl
• Use alley cropping

• Likely to be beneficial
• Reduce grazing intensity
• Trade-off between benefit and harms
• Restore or create low input grasslands