Table des matières
1. Amphibian conservation
Rebecca K. Smith, Helen Meredith et William J. Sutherland
1. Amphibian conservation- 1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- 1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management
- Manage silviculture practices in plantations
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manage cutting regime
- Manage grazing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage ditches
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing
- Likely to be beneficial
- Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
- Modify gully pots and kerbs
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install barrier fencing along roads
- Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use signage to warn motorists
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads
- 1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce impact of amphibian trade
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
- Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave coarse woody debris in forests
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
- Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
- Thin trees within forests
- Beneficial
- Regulate water levels
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)
- 1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove or control fish population by catching
- Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
- Remove or control invasive viperine snake
- Remove or control mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove or control fish using Rotenone
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Exclude fish with barriers
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce competition from native amphibians
- Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Control invasive plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add salt to ponds
- Immunize amphibians against infection
- Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
- Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
- Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
- Use gloves to handle amphibians
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
- Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.1 Agricultural pollution
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
- Plant riparian buffer strips
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.2 Industrial pollution
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.1 Terrestrial habitat
- Beneficial
- Replant vegetation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clear vegetation
- Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
- Create refuges
- Restore habitat connectivity
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change mowing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.2 Aquatic habitat
- Beneficial
- Create ponds (amphibians in general)
- Create ponds (frogs)
- Create ponds (natterjack toads)
- Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
- Create wetlands
- Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
- Restore wetlands
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ponds (great crested newts)
- Create ponds (green toads)
- Create ponds (toads)
- Remove specific aquatic plants
- Restore ponds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.13.1 Translocate amphibians
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
- Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
- Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
- Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
- Translocate amphibians (toads)
- Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate amphibians (frogs)
- 1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases
- Likely to be beneficial
- Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
- Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
- Head-start amphibians for release
- Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
- Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
- Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)
2. Bat Conservation
Anna Berthinussen, Olivia C. Richardson, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
2. Bat conservation- 2.2.1 Land use change
- Likely to be beneficial
- Protect or create wetlands as foraging habitat for bats
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Retain or plant trees on agricultural land to replace foraging habitat
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.2 Intensive farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Convert to organic farming
- Encourage agroforestry
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Introduce agri-environment schemes
- 2.6.1 Hunting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.6.2 Guano harvesting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.6.3 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Incorporate forested corridors or buffers into logged areas
- Use selective harvesting/reduced impact logging instead of clearcutting
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
- Thin trees within forests
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.10.1 Domestic and urban waste water
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
- 2.10.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.10.3 Light and noise pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Leave bat roosts, roost entrances and commuting routes unlit
- Minimize excess light pollution
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.10.4 Timber treatments
- Beneficial
- Use mammal safe timber treatments in roof spaces
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Restrict timing of treatment
3. Bird Conservation
David R. Williams, Matthew F. Child, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
3. Bird conservation- 3.4.1 All farming systems
- Beneficial
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Leave refuges in fields during harvest
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
- Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control scrub on farmland
- Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
- Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
- Plant new hedges
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
- Take field corners out of management
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.2 Arable farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ʹskylark plotsʹ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
- Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Reduce tillage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Implement mosaic management
- Increase crop diversity to benefit birds
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Revert arable land to permanent grassland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.3 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows
- Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Reduce grazing intensity
- Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Maintain upland heath/moor
- Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
- Provide short grass for waders
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Maintain traditional orchards
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.5 Aquaculture
- Likely to be beneficial
- Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
- Disturb birds at roosts
- Provide refuges for fish within ponds
- Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
- Use ʹmussel socksʹ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
- Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
- Translocate birds away from fish farms
- Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Disturb birds using foot patrols
- Spray water to deter birds from ponds
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Scare birds from fish farms
- 3.6.1 Verges and airports
- Likely to be beneficial
- Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mow roadside verges
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons
- Beneficial
- Mark power lines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Bury or isolate power lines
- Insulate electricity pylons
- Remove earth wires from power lines
- Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Thicken earth wires
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Add perches to electricity pylons
- Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
- Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines
- 3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict
- Beneficial
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Employ local people as ʹbiomonitorsʹ
- Increase ʹon-the-groundʹ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
- Introduce voluntary ʹmaximum shoot distancesʹ
- Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
- Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
- Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
- Provide ʹsacrificial grasslandsʹ to reduce conflict with farmers
- Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
- Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch
- Beneficial
- Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
- Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
- Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
- Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
- Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
- Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bird exclusion devices such as ʹBrickle curtainsʹ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines
- Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide paths to limit disturbance
- Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
- Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
- Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Habituate birds to human visitors
- Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Clear or open patches in forests
- Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
- Employ grazing in natural grasslands
- Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
- Manage water level in wetlands
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (forests)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting natural grasslands)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (mowing or cutting semi-natural grasslands/pastures)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (shrublands)
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Thin trees within forests
- Use prescribed burning (grasslands)
- Use prescribed burning (pine forests)
- Use prescribed burning (savannahs)
- Use prescribed burning (shrublands)
- Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clearcut and re-seed forests
- Coppice trees
- Fertilise grasslands
- Manage woodland edges for birds
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)
- Plant trees to act as windbreaks
- Plough habitats
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
- Remove coarse woody debris from forests
- Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
- Re-seed grasslands
- Use environmentally sensitive flood management
- Use fire suppression/control
- Use greentree reservoir management
- Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- Use variable retention management during forestry operations
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Apply herbicide to mid-and understorey vegetation
- Treat wetlands with herbicides
- Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
- Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Restore or create forests
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore or create grassland
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Restore or create shrubland
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Control mammalian predators on islands
- Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control avian predators on islands
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control invasive ants on islands
- Reduce predation by translocating predators
- Evidence not assessed
- Control predators not on islands
- 3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Distribute poison bait using dispensers
- Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
- Use repellents on baits
- Evidence not assessed
- Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
- 3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
- Likely to be beneficial
- Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
- Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks
- Use artificial nests that discourage predation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Guard nests to prevent predation
- Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
- Protect nests from ants
- Use multiple barriers to protect nests
- Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
- Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
- Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
- 3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
- Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
- Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
- 3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Protect nest sites from competitors
- Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
- 3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
- Remove problematic vegetation
- Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
- 3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove/control adult brood parasites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
- Exclude or control ʹreservoir speciesʹ to reduce parasite burdens
- Remove brood parasite eggs from target speciesʹ nests
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)
- Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)
- 3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests
- 3.12.1 Industrial pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use visual and acoustic ʹscarersʹ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Relocate birds following oil spills
- Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Clean birds after oil spills
- 3.12.2 Agricultural pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
- Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
- 3.12.4 Excess energy
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Rehabilitate injured birds
- Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
- Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
- 3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites
- Beneficial
- Provide artificial nests (falcons)
- Provide artificial nests (owls)
- Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
- Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
- Provide artificial nests (ground-and tree-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (raptors)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl – artificial/floating islands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
- Guard nests
- Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
- Provide artificial nests (grebes)
- Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
- Provide artificial nests (parrots)
- Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
- Provide artificial nests (rails)
- Provide artificial nests (rollers)
- Provide artificial nests (swifts)
- Provide artificial nests (trogons)
- Provide artificial nests (waders)
- Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
- Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
- Provide nesting material for wild birds
- Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
- Repair/support nests to support breeding
- Use differently-coloured artificial nests
- 3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild
- Likely to be beneficial
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (crossfostering) (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
- 3.14.4 Provide supplementary food
- Beneficial
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
- Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide perches to improve foraging success
- Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
- Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
- 3.14.5 Translocations
- Beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
- Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
- Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
- Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
- Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
- Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.15.1 Captive breeding
- Likely to be beneficial
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
- Freeze semen for artificial insemination
- Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
- Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
- Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
- Evidence not assessed
- Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?
- 3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide supplementary food after release
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clip birds’ wings on release
- Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
- Release birds in groups
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
- Release chicks and adults in ʹcoveysʹ
- Use ʹanti-predator trainingʹ to improve survival after release
- Use appropriate populations to source released populations
- Use ʹflying trainingʹ before release
- Use holding pens at release sites
- Use microlites to help birds migrate
4. Farmland Conservation
Lynn V. Dicks, Joscelyne E. Ashpole, Juliana Dänhardt et al.
4. Farmland conservation- Beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
- Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
- Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
- Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- Plant new hedges
- Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
- Provide nest boxes for birds
- Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
- Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Create skylark plots
- Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ′lapwing plots′)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Reduce tillage
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
- Create rotational grass or clover leys
- Implement ′mosaic management′, a Dutch agri-environment option
- Increase crop diversity
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Plant nettle strips
- Sow rare or declining arable weeds
- Take field corners out of management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)
- Maintain upland heath/moorland
- Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
- Maintain wood pasture and parkland
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Provide short grass for birds
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Restore or create upland heath/moorland
- Restore or create wood pasture
- Use mixed stocking
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
- Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Make selective use of spring herbicides
- Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
- Restrict certain pesticides
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
- Provide ′sacrificial′ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
- Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create scrapes and pools
- Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
- Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
- Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control bracken
- Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
- Control mink
- Control scrub
- Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
- Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
- Provide medicated grit for grouse
- No evidence found (no assessment)
5. Some aspects of control of freshwater invasive species
David Aldridge, Rebecca K. Smith et William J. Sutherland
5. Some aspects of control of freshwater invasive species- 5.1.1 American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeiana
- Likely to be beneficial
- Biological control using native predators
- Direct removal of adults
- Direct removal of juveniles
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Draining ponds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Application of a biocide
- Biological control of co-occuring beneficial species
- Habitat modification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.2.1 Procambarus spp. crayfish
- Likely to be beneficial
- Add chemicals to the water
- Sterilization of males
- Trapping and removal
- Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create barriers
- Food source removal
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Encouraging predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
6. Some aspects of enhancing natural pest control
Hugh, L. Wright, Joscelyne E. Ashpole et al.
6. Some aspects of enhancing natural pest control- Likely to be beneficial
- Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
- Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant new hedges
- Use alley cropping
- Evidence not assessed
- Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations
- Beneficial
- Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals
7. Enhancing soil fertility
- Beneficial
- Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
- Grow cover crops when the field is empty
- Use crop rotation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
- Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add mulch to crops
- Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
- Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
- Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
- Incorporate leys into crop rotation
- Retain crop residues
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
- Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
- Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
- Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
- Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
- Encourage foraging waterfowl
- Use alley cropping
