15.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
p. 879-884
Texte intégral
Beneficial
Exclude or limit number of visitors to reserves or protected areas
1Five studies evaluated the effects on mammals of excluding or limiting the number of visitors to reserves or protected areas. Three studies were in the USA, one was in Ecuador and one was in Thailand.
2COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
3POPULATION RESPONSE (2 STUDIES)
4Abundance (1 study): A site comparison study in Ecuador found that a road with restricted access had a higher population of medium-sized and large mammals compared to a road with unrestricted access.
5Survival (1 study): A before-and-after study in the USA found that temporarily restricting visitor access resulted in fewer bears being killed to protect humans. BEHAVIOUR (3 STUDIES)
6Use (3 studies): Three studies (one a before-and-after study), in the USA and Thailand, found that restricting human access to protected areas resulted in increased use of these areas by grizzly bears and leopards.
7Assessment: beneficial (effectiveness 80 %; certainty 70 %; harms 0 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2330
Likely to be beneficial
Use conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites
8Two studies evaluated the effects on mammals of using conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites. Both studies were in the USA.
9COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
10POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
11BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
12OTHER (2 STUDIES)
13Human-wildlife conflict (2 studies): Two studies, in the USA, found that lacing foodstuffs with substances that induce illness led to these foods being avoided by coyotes and black bears.
14Assessment: likely to be beneficial (effectiveness 75 %; certainty 50 %; harms 0 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2384
Use non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans
15Eight studies evaluated the effects of using non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans. Three studies were in the USA, two were in Australia, one was in the USA and Canada, one was in Austria and one was in Bangladesh.
16COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
17POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY)
18Survival (1 study): A study in Bangladesh found that when domestic dogs accompanied people to give advance warning of tiger presence, fewer tigers were killed by people.
19BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
20OTHER (8 STUDIES)
21Human-wildlife conflict (8 studies): Two studies, in the USA and Canada, found that pepper spray caused all or most American black bears and grizzly bears to flee or cease aggressive behaviour. One of these studies also showed that tear gas repelled half of American black bears. Two studies in the USA and Austria found that grizzly/brown bears were repelled by rubber bullets or by a range of deterrents including rubber bullets, chasing, shouting and throwing items. A study in the USA found that hikers wearing bear bells were less likely to be approached or charged by grizzly bears than were hikers without bells. A replicated, controlled study in Australia found that ultrasonic sound deterrent units did not affect feeding location choices of dingoes. A study in Bangladesh found that domestic dogs accompanying people gave advance warning of tiger presence, enabling people to take precautionary actions. A study in Australia found that a motorised water pistol caused most dingoes to change direction or speed or move ≥5 m away, but sounding a horn did not.
22Assessment: likely to be beneficial (effectiveness 62 %; certainty 60 %; harms 0 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2385
Use prescribed burning
23Thirty-seven studies evaluated the effects on mammals of using prescribed burning. Twenty-five studies were in the USA, three each were in Canada and South Africa, two each were in Spain and Tanzania and one each was in France and Auatralia.
24COMMUNITY RESPONSE (2 STUDIES)
25Richness/diversity (2 studies): A replicated, randomized, controlled study in the USA found similar small mammal species richness after prescribed burning compared to in unburned forest. A replicated, site comparison study in Australia found that prescribed burns early in the dry season resulted in higher small mammal species richness relative to wildfires later in the season. POPULATION RESPONSE (16 STUDIES)
26Abundance (11 studies): Five of 10 replicated studies (of which eight were controlled and two were site comparisons), in the USA, Spain and Australia, found that prescribed burning did not increase abundances of small mammals. Three studies found mixed effects, on cottontail rabbits and small mammals and two found that burning increased numbers of European rabbits and small mammals. A systematic review in the USA found that two mammal species showed positive responses (abundance or reproduction) to prescribed burning while three showed no response.
27Reproductive success (1 study): A before-and-after, site comparison study in South Africa found that 92 % of Cape mountain zebra foals were produced in the three years post-fire compared to 8 % in the three years pre-fire.
28Condition (1 study): A replicated, controlled study, in the USA, found that prescribed burning did not reduce bot fly infestation rates among rodents and cottontail rabbits.
29Occupancy/range (3 studies): Two of three studies (including two site comparisons and one controlled study), in the USA and Canada, found that prescribed burning resulted in larger areas being occupied by black-tailed prairie dog colonies and smaller individual home ranges of Mexican fox squirrels. The third study found that prescribed burning did not increase occupancy rates of beaver lodges.
30BEHAVIOUR (22 STUDIES)
31Use (21 studies): Ten of 21 studies (including eight controlled studies and eight site comparisons with a further four being before-and-after studies), in the USA, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania and France, found that prescribed burning increased use of areas (measured either as time spent in areas or consumption of food resources) by bighorn sheep, mule deer, pronghorn antelope, elk, plains bison, Cape mountain zebrasand mouflon. Six studies found mixed effects, with responses differing among different ages or sexes of white-tailed deer, bison and elk, differing among different large herbivore species or varying over time for elk, while swift foxes denned more but did not hunt more in burned areas. The other five studies showed that prescribed burning did not increase use or herbivory by elk, black-tailed deer, white-tailed deer or mixed species groups of mammalian herbivores.
32Behaviour change (1 study): A site comparison study in Tanzania found that vigilance of Thomson’s gazelles did not differ between those on burned and unburned areas.
33Assessment: likely to be beneficial (effectiveness 49 %; certainty 50 %; harms 5 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2388
Use signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals
34One study evaluated the effects of using signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals. This study was in the USA.
35COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
36POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
37BEHAVIOUR (1 STUDY)
38Use (1 study): A replicated, paired sites, site comparison study in the USA found that removing or closing roads increased use of those areas by black bears.
39Assessment: likely to be beneficial (effectiveness 80 %; certainty 40 %; harms 0 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2325
Trade-off between benefit and harms
Translocate mammals that have habituated to humans (e.g. bears)
40Two studies evaluated the effects of translocating mammals that have habituated to humans. One study was in the USA and one was in the USA and Canada.
41COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
42POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
43BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
44OTHER (2 STUDIES)
45Human-wildlife conflict (2 studies): A study in the USA found that almost half of the translocated ‘nuisance’ black bears returned to their capture locations. A review of studies in the USA and Canada found that black bears translocated away from sites of conflict with humans were less likely to return to their capture site if translocated as younger bears, over greater distances, or across geographic barriers.
46Assessment: trade-off between benefit and harms (effectiveness 50 %; certainty 49 %; harms 20 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2341
Unknown effectiveness
Habituate mammals to visitors
47One study evaluated the effects of habituating mammals to visitors. This study was in the USA.
48COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
49POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
50BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
51OTHER (1 STUDY)
52Human-wildlife conflict (1 study): A study in the USA found that brown bears that were highly habituated to humans showed less aggression towards human visitors than did non-habituated bears.
53Assessment: unknown effectiveness (effectiveness 50 %; certainty 20 %; harms 10 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2340
Treat mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans
54One study evaluated the effects of treating mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans. This study was in Germany.
55COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
56POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
57BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
58OTHER (1 STUDY)
59Human-wildlife conflict (1 study): A controlled, before-and-after study in Germany found that following a worming programme, proportions of red foxes infested with small fox tapeworm fell.
60Assessment: unknown effectiveness (effectiveness 50 %; certainty 30 %; harms 0 %).
https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2342
No evidence found (no assessment)
61We have captured no evidence for the following interventions:
Provide paths to limit extent of disturbance to mammals
Set maximum number of people/vehicles approaching mammals
Set minimum distances for approaching mammals
Use voluntary agreements with locals to reduce disturbance.
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