Table des matières
1. Amphibian conservation
Rebecca K. Smith, Helen Meredith et William J. Sutherland
1. Amphibian conservation- 1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- 1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management
- Manage silviculture practices in plantations
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manage cutting regime
- Manage grazing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage ditches
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing
- Likely to be beneficial
- Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
- Modify gully pots and kerbs
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install barrier fencing along roads
- Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use signage to warn motorists
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads
- 1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce impact of amphibian trade
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
- Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave coarse woody debris in forests
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
- Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
- Thin trees within forests
- Beneficial
- Regulate water levels
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)
- 1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove or control fish population by catching
- Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
- Remove or control invasive viperine snake
- Remove or control mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove or control fish using Rotenone
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Exclude fish with barriers
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce competition from native amphibians
- Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control invasive plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add salt to ponds
- Immunize amphibians against infection
- Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
- Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
- Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
- Use gloves to handle amphibians
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
- Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.1 Agricultural pollution
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
- Plant riparian buffer strips
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.2 Industrial pollution
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.1 Terrestrial habitat
- Beneficial
- Replant vegetation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clear vegetation
- Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
- Create refuges
- Restore habitat connectivity
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change mowing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.2 Aquatic habitat
- Beneficial
- Create ponds (amphibians in general)
- Create ponds (frogs)
- Create ponds (natterjack toads)
- Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
- Create wetlands
- Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
- Restore wetlands
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ponds (great crested newts)
- Create ponds (green toads)
- Create ponds (toads)
- Remove specific aquatic plants
- Restore ponds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.13.1 Translocate amphibians
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
- Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
- Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
- Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
- Translocate amphibians (toads)
- Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate amphibians (frogs)
- 1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases
- Likely to be beneficial
- Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
- Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
- Head-start amphibians for release
- Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
- Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
- Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)
2. Bat conservation
Anna Berthinussen, Olivia C. Richardson et John D. Altringham
2. Bat conservation- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments
- Unknown effectiveness
- Change timing of building work
- Create alternative bat roosts within developments
- Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas
- Exclude bats from roosts during building work
- Legally protect bats during development
- Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites
- Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.1 All farming systems
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry)
- Use organic farming instead of conventional farming
- Unknown effectiveness
- Create tree plantations on agricultural land
- Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats
- Manage hedges to benefit bats
- Plant field margins with a diverse mix of plant species
- Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
- Retain riparian buffers on agricultural land
- Retain unmown field margins
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.2 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage livestock water troughs as a drinking resource for bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use non-lethal measures to prevent bats from accessing fruit in orchards to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.3.1 Wind turbines
- Beneficial
- Increase the wind speed at which turbines become operational (‘cut-in speed’)
- Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds (’feathering’)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high
- Slow rotation of turbine blades at low wind speeds
- Unknown effectiveness
- Apply textured coating to turbines
- Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.3.2 Mining
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access
- Unknown effectiveness
- Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines
- Restore bat foraging habitat at ex-quarry sites
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.4.1 Roads
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create spaces for roosting bats in road/railway bridges and culverts
- Install overpasses as road/railway crossing structures for bats
- Install underpasses or culverts as road/railway crossing structures for bats
- Maintain bat roosts in road/railway bridges and culverts
- Unknown effectiveness
- Divert bats to safe crossing points over or under roads/ railways with plantings or fencing
- Install green bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats
- Provide alternative bat roosts during maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.1 Hunting
- Unknown effectiveness
- Inform local communities about disease risks from hunting and eating bat meat to reduce killing of bats
- Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.2 Guano harvesting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain forested corridors in logged areas
- Thin trees within forest and woodland
- Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging
- Unknown effectiveness
- Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth
- Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.6.1 Caving and tourism
- Likely to be beneficial
- Impose restrictions on cave visits
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access
- Unknown effectiveness
- Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access
- Minimize noise levels within caves
- Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.1 Invasive species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control invasive predators
- Unknown effectiveness
- Control invasive plant species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.2 White-nose syndrome
- Unknown effectiveness
- Modify bat hibernacula environments to increase survival of bats infected with white-nose syndrome
- Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.3 Disease
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.4 Problematic native species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water
- Unknown effectiveness
- Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.3 Light pollution
- Beneficial
- Leave bat roosts and roost entrances unlit
- Likely to be beneficial
- Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes
- Avoid illumination of bat foraging, drinking and swarming sites
- Use low intensity lighting
- Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours
- Unknown effectiveness
- Restrict timing of lighting
- Use ultraviolet filters on lights
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.4 Timber treatments
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Restrict timing of timber treatment application
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.5 Industrial effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.6 Noise pollution
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats
- Create artificial water sources
- Restore or create wetlands
- Unknown effectiveness
- Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats
- Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks
- Restore or create forest or woodland
- Restore or create grassland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.13.1 Species management
- Likely to be beneficial
- ●Provide bat boxes for roosting bats
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.13.2 Ex-situ conservation
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Breed bats in captivity
- ●Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations
- 2.13.3 Translocation
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- ●Translocate bats
3. Bird conservation
David R. Williams, Matthew F. Child, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
3. Bird conservation- 3.4.1 All farming systems
- Beneficial
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Leave refuges in fields during harvest
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
- Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control scrub on farmland
- Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
- Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
- Plant new hedges
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
- Take field corners out of management
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.2 Arable farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
- Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Reduce tillage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Implement mosaic management
- Increase crop diversity to benefit birds
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Revert arable land to permanent grassland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.3 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows
- Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Reduce grazing intensity
- Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Maintain upland heath/moor
- Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
- Provide short grass for waders
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Maintain traditional orchards
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.5 Aquaculture
- Likely to be beneficial
- Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
- Disturb birds at roosts
- Provide refuges for fish within ponds
- Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
- Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
- Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
- Translocate birds away from fish farms
- Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Disturb birds using foot patrols
- Spray water to deter birds from ponds
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Scare birds from fish farms
- 3.6.1 Verges and airports
- Likely to be beneficial
- Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mow roadside verges
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons
- Beneficial
- Mark power lines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Bury or isolate power lines
- Insulate electricity pylons
- Remove earth wires from power lines
- Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Thicken earth wires
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Add perches to electricity pylons
- Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
- Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines
- 3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict
- Scare flsh-eating birds from areas to reduce conflict
- Beneficial
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’
- Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
- Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’
- Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
- Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
- Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
- Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers
- Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
- Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch
- Beneficial
- Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
- Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
- Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
- Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
- Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
- Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines
- Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide paths to limit disturbance
- Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
- Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
- Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Habituate birds to human visitors
- Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Clear or open patches in forests
- Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
- Employ grazing in natural grasslands
- Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
- Manage water level in wetlands
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in forests
- Mow or cut natural grasslands
- Mow or cut semi-natural grasslands/pastures
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in shrublands
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Thin trees within forests
- Use prescribed burning: grasslands
- Use prescribed burning: pine forests
- Use prescribed burning: savannahs
- Use prescribed burning: shrublands
- Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clearcut and re-seed forests
- Coppice trees
- Fertilise grasslands
- Manage woodland edges for birds
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)
- Plant trees to act as windbreaks
- Plough habitats
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
- Remove coarse woody debris from forests
- Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
- Re-seed grasslands
- Use environmentally sensitive flood management
- Use fire suppression/control
- Use greentree reservoir management
- Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- Use variable retention management during forestry operations
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation
- Treat wetlands with herbicides
- Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
- Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
- No evidence found (no assessment
- Beneficial
- Restore or create forests
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore or create grassland
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Restore or create shrubland
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Control mammalian predators on islands
- Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control avian predators on islands
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control invasive ants on islands
- Reduce predation by translocating predators
- Evidence not assessed
- Control predators not on islands
- 3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Distribute poison bait using dispensers
- Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
- Use repellents on baits
- Evidence not assessed
- Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
- 3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
- Likely to be beneficial
- Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
- Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks
- Protect bird nests using electric fencing
- Use artificial nests that discourage predation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Guard nests to prevent predation
- Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
- Protect nests from ants
- Use multiple barriers to protect nests
- Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
- Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
- Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
- 3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
- Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
- Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
- 3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Protect nest sites from competitors
- Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
- 3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
- Remove problematic vegetation
- Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
- 3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove/control adult brood parasites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
- Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens
- Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)
- Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)
- 3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests
- 3.12.1 Industrial pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Relocate birds following oil spills
- Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Clean birds after oil spills
- 3.12.2 Agricultural pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
- Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
- 3.12.4 Excess energy
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Rehabilitate injured birds
- Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
- Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
- 3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites
- Beneficial
- Provide artificial nests (falcons)
- Provide artificial nests (owls)
- Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
- Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
- Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (raptors)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
- Guard nests
- Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
- Provide artificial nests (grebes)
- Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
- Provide artificial nests (parrots)
- Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
- Provide artificial nests (rails)
- Provide artificial nests (rollers)
- Provide artificial nests (swifts)
- Provide artificial nests (trogons)
- Provide artificial nests (waders)
- Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
- Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
- Provide nesting material for wild birds
- Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
- Repair/support nests to support breeding
- Use differently-coloured artificial nests
- 3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild
- Likely to be beneficial
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
- 3.14.4 Provide supplementary food
- Beneficial
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
- Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide perches to improve foraging success
- Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
- Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
- 3.14.5 Translocations
- Beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
- Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
- Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
- Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
- Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
- Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.15.1 Captive breeding
- Likely to be beneficial
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
- Freeze semen for artificial insemination
- Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
- Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
- Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
- Evidence not assessed
- Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?
- 3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide supplementary food after release
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clip birds’ wings on release
- Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
- Release birds in groups
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
- Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’
- Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release
- Use appropriate populations to source released populations
- Use ‘flying training’ before release
- Use holding pens at release sites
- Use microlites to help birds migrate
4. Farmland conservation
Lynn V. Dicks, Joscelyne E. Ashpole, Juliana Dänhardt et al.
4. Farmland conservation- Beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
- Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
- Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
- Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
- Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- Plant new hedges
- Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
- Provide nest boxes for birds
- Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
- Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Create skylark plots
- Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Reduce tillage
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
- Create rotational grass or clover leys
- Increase crop diversity
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
- Plant nettle strips
- Sow rare or declining arable weeds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Take field corners out of management
- Beneficial
- Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)
- Maintain upland heath/moorland
- Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
- Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
- Maintain wood pasture and parkland
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Restore or create upland heath/moorland
- Restore or create wood pasture
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Provide short grass for birds
- Use mixed stocking
- Beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
- Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
- Restrict certain pesticides
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Make selective use of spring herbicides
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
- Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create scrapes and pools
- Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
- Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
- Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control scrub
- Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
- Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Control bracken
- Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
- Control mink
- Provide medicated grit for grouse
5. Forest conservation
har’El Agra, Simon Schowanek, Yohay Carmel et al.
5. Forest conservation- 5.2.1 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Prevent livestock grazing in forests
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests
- Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting
- Beneficial
- Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants
- Likely to be beneficial
- Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants
- Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees
- Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees
- Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Use summer instead of winter harvesting
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove woody debris after timber harvest
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees
- Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants
- Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.2 Harvest forest products
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Adopt certification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.3 Firewood
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.1 Changing fire frequency
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants
- Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.2 Water management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity
- Use group-selection harvesting
- Use shelterwood harvesting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)
- Use herbicides to thin trees
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use thinning followed by prescribed fire
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.1 Invasive plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants
- Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.2 Native plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.3 Herbivores
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.4 Rodents
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control rodents
- 5.6.5 Birds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control birds
- 5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Thin trees after wildfire
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove burned trees
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Sow tree seeds after wildfire
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)
- 5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply herbicides after restoration planting
- Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting
- Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting
- Use selective thinning after restoration planting
- 5.10.4 Restore forest community
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal
- Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity
- Sow tree seeds
- Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.6 Increase soil fertility
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add organic matter
- Use fertilizer
- Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add lime to the soil to increase fertility
- Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Enhance soil compaction
- Beneficial
- Prepare the ground before tree planting
- Use mechanical thinning before or after planting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting
- Use herbicide after tree planting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire after tree planting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates
- Add lime to the soil after tree planting
- Add organic matter after tree planting
- Cover the ground with straw after tree planting
- Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)
- Manage woody debris before tree planting
- Use shading for planted trees
- Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees
- Use weed mats to protect planted trees
- Water seedlings
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting
- Use different planting or seeding methods
- Use fertilizer after tree planting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
5. Forest conservation
Nigel G. Taylor, Patrick Grillas et William J. Sutherland
6. Peatland conservation- 6.2.1 Multiple farming systems
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cut/remove/thin forest plantations
- Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat
- 6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching
- Likely to be beneficial
- Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce intensity of livestock grazing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.7.1 Modified water management
- Beneficial
- Rewet peatland (raise water table)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Irrigate peatland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.7.2 Modified vegetation management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance
- Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance
- Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance
- 6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.1 All problematic species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.2 Problematic plants
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Physically remove problematic plants
- Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants
- Change season/timing of cutting/mowing
- Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs
- Use herbicide to control problematic plants
- Introduce an organism to control problematic plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.3 Problematic animals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Divert/replace polluted water source (s)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clean waste water before it enters the environment
- Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.4 Airborne pollutants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment
- Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility
- Drain/replace acidic water
- 6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)
- Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique
- 6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants
- Remove upper layer of peat/soil
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Excavate pools
- Reprofile/relandscape peatland
- Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants
- Add inorganic fertilizer
- Cover peatland with organic mulch
- Cover peatland with something other than mulch
- Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize
- Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.11.3 Introduce peatland vegetation
- Beneficial
- Add mosses to peatland surface
- Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface
- Likely to be beneficial
- Directly plant peatland mosses
- Directly plant peatland herbs
- Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs
- Introduce seeds of peatland herbs
- Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting)
- Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting)
- Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants)
- Irrigate peatland (before/after planting)
- Create mounds or hollows (before planting)
- Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting)
- Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation
- Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting)
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Add lime (before/after planting)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
7. Primate conservation
Jessica Junker, Hjalmar S. Kühl, Lisa Orth et al.
7. Primate conservation- 7.5.1 Hunting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
- Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
- Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- Implement local no-hunting community policies/traditional hunting ban
- Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates
- Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols
- Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.5.2 Substitution
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting
- Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.8.1 Problematic animal/plant species and genes
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.8.2 Disease transmission
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
- Keep safety distance to habituated animals
- Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals
- Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/ translocation
- Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
- Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
- Treat sick/injured animals
- Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival
- Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/ translocating them
- Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site
- Detect and report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
- Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
- Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness
- Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.11.1 Habitat protection
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create/protect habitat corridors
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Legally protect primate habitat
- Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards and codes)
- Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.11.2 Habitat creation or restoration
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.1 Species management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/ well-being
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
- Implement legal protection for primate species under threat
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.2 Species recovery
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates
- Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only
- Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only
- Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates
- Provide artificial water sources
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.3 Species reintroduction
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere
- Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments
- Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild
- Reintroduce primates in groups
- Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
- Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators
- Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators
- 7.12.4 Ex-situ conservation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment
- Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates
- Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation
- 7.13.1 Provide benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
- Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
- 7.13.2 Long-term presence of research/tourism project
- Likely to be beneficial
- Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Permanent presence of staff/managers
8. Shrublandand heathland conservation
Philip A. Martin, Ricardo Rocha, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
8. Shrublandand heathland conservation- 8.8.1 Problematic tree species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply herbicide to trees
- Cut trees
- Cut trees and remove leaf litter
- Cut trees and remove seedlings
- Use prescribed burning to control trees
- Use grazing to control trees
- Cut trees and apply herbicide
- Cut trees and use prescribed burning
- Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.8.2 Problematic grass species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Cut/mow to control grass
- Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants
- Rake to control grass
- Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass
- Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass
- Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass
- Use grazing to control grass
- Use precribed burning to control grass
- Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass
- Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass
- Strip turf to control grass
- Rotovate to control grass
- Add mulch to control grass
- Add mulch to control grass and sow seed
- Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use herbicide to control grass
- 8.8.3 Bracken
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use herbicide to control bracken
- Cut to control bracken
- Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken
- Cut bracken and rotovate
- Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken
- Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.8.4 Problematic animals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use fences to exclude large herbivores
- Reduce numbers of large herbivores
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.1 General restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.2 Modify physical habitat
- Likely to be beneficial
- Add topsoil
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Disturb vegetation
- Strip topsoil
- Remove leaf litter
- Add sulphur to soil
- Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment
- Add mulch and fertilizer to soil
- Add manure to soil
- Irrigate degraded shrublands
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.3 Introduce vegetation or seeds
- Beneficial
- Sow seeds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant individual plants
- Sow seeds and plant individual plants
- Spread clippings
- Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants
- Plant turf
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/ seeding)
- Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Plant seed balls
- Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants
- Plant/seed under established vegetation
- Plant shrubs in clusters
- Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants
9. Management of captive animals
Coral S. Jonas, Lydia T. Timbrell, Fey Young et al.
9. Management of captive animals- 9.1.1 Refining techniques using less threatened species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Identify and breed a similar species to refine husbandry techniques prior to working with target species
- 9.1.2 Changing environmental conditions/ microclimate
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- Vary quality or quantity (UV % or gradients) of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs
- Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.3 Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure
- Provide natural substrate for species which do not breed in water (e.g. burrowing/tunnel breeders)
- Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites
- 9.1.4 Manipulate social conditions
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure
- Separate sexes in non-breeding periods
- Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild
- Allow female mate choice
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.5 Changing the diet of adults
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration)
- Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.6 Manipulate rearing conditions for young
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood
- Manipulate larval density within the enclosure
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.7 Artificial reproduction
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.1 Diet and food type
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/ gastrointestinal tract)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Feed commercially prepared diets
- Feed plant-derived protein
- Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion
- Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.2 Food presentation and enrichment
- Beneficial
- Hide food around enclosure
- Likely to be beneficial
- Present food frozen in ice
- Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change location of food around enclosure
- Scatter food around enclosure
- Provide live vertebrate prey
- Provide live invertebrate prey
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.3 Feeding schedule
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Provide food on a random temporal schedule
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Allocate fast days
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.4 Social feeding
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.1 Food Presentation
- Beneficial
- Scatter food throughout enclosure
- Likely to be beneficial
- Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags)
- Present food frozen in ice
- Present food items whole instead of processed
- Present feeds at different crowd levels
- Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Present food in puzzle feeders
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Present food in water (including dishes and ponds)
- Present food dipped in food colouring
- Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.2 Diet manipulation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Formulate diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods (including removal of domestic fruits)
- Provide cut branches (browse)
- Provide live invertebrates
- Provide fresh produce
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.3 Feeding Schedule
- Likely to be beneficial
- Change feeding times
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Change the number of feeds per day
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.4 Social group manipulation
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Feed individuals in social groups
- No evidence found (no assessment)
10. Someaspects of control of freshwater invasive species
David Aldridge, Nancy Ockendon, Ricardo Rocha et al.
10. Someaspects of control of freshwater invasive species- 10.1.1 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D
- Likely to be beneficial
- Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl
- Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr
- Chemical control using the herbicide diquat
- Chemical control using the herbicide endohall
- Chemical control using other herbicides
- Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Biological control using herbivores
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Water level drawdown
- Biological control using plant pathogens
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.2 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Likely to be beneficial
- Flame treatment
- Physical removal
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores
- Use of hydrogen peroxide
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.3 Water primrose Ludwigia spp.
- Likely to be beneficial
- Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Physical removal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.4 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus
- Likely to be beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Physical removal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.5 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Decontamination to prevent further spread
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use lightproof barriers to control plants
- Use salt water to kill plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use a combination of control methods
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use dyes to reduce light levels
- Use grazing to control plants
- Use hot foam to control plants
- Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids
- Likely to be beneficial
- Change salinity of the water
- Change water temperature
- Dewatering (drying out) habitat
- Exposure to parasites
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Add chemicals to water
- Change water pH
- Control movement of gammarids
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish
- Likely to be beneficial
- Add chemicals to the water
- Sterilization of males
- Trapping and removal
- Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create barriers
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Encouraging predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
11. Someaspects of enhancing natural pest control
Hugh L. Wright, Joscelyne E. Ashpole, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
11. Someaspects of enhancing natural pest control- Likely to be beneficial
- Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
- Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant new hedges
- Use alley cropping
- Evidence not assessed
- Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations
- Beneficial
- Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals
12. Enhancing soil fertility
Georgina Key, Mike Whitfield, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
12. Enhancing soil fertility- Beneficial
- Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
- Grow cover crops when the field is empty
- Use crop rotation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
- Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add mulch to crops
- Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
- Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
- Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
- Incorporate leys into crop rotation
- Retain crop residues
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
- Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
- Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
- Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
- Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
- Encourage foraging waterfowl
- Use alley cropping
13. Subtidal benthic invertebrate conservation
Anaelle J. Lemasson, Laura R. Pettit, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
13. Subtidal benthic invertebrateconservation- 13.1.1 Oil and gas drilling
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.2 General
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.3 Mining, quarrying, and aggregate extraction
- Beneficial
- Cease or prohibit aggregate extraction
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit marine mining
- Extract aggregates from a vessel that is moving rather than static
- Leave mining waste (tailings) in place following cessation of disposal operations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.4 Renewable energy
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Management
- Beneficial
- Cease or prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cease or prohibit all types of fishing
- Cease or prohibit bottom trawling
- Cease or prohibit dredging
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit commercial fishing
- Establish temporary fisheries closures
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.2 Effort and Capacity Reduction
- Unknown effectiveness
- Establish territorial user rights for fisheries
- Install physical barriers to prevent trawling
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.3 Reduce Unwanted catch, Discards and Impacts on seabed communities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets
- Modify the design of dredges
- Modify the position of traps
- Use a larger codend mesh size on trawl nets
- Use a midwater/semi-pelagic trawl instead of bottom/ demersal trawl
- Unknown effectiveness
- Fit a funnel (such as a sievenet) or other escape devices on shrimp/prawn trawl nets
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows and one or more soft, rigid or semi-rigid grids or frames to trawl nets
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets and use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames and increase the mesh size of pots and traps
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames on pots and traps
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets and use square mesh instead of a diamond mesh at the codend
- Hand harvest instead of using a dredge
- Increase the mesh size of pots and traps
- Modify the design of traps
- Modify the design/attachments of a shrimp/prawn W-trawl net
- Reduce the number or modify the arrangement of tickler chains/chain mats on trawl nets
- Use a larger mesh size on trammel nets
- Use a pulse trawl instead of a beam trawl
- Use a smaller beam trawl
- Use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend on trawl nets
- Use an otter trawl instead of a beam trawl
- Use an otter trawl instead of a dredge
- Use different bait species in traps
- Use traps instead of fishing nets
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.1 General
- Unknown effectiveness
- Add chemicals or minerals to sediments to remove or neutralise pollutants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.2 Domestic and urban wastewater
- Likely to be beneficial
- Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of sewage sludge
- Unknown effectiveness
- Set or improve minimum sewage treatment standards
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.3 Industrial and military effluents
- Unknown effectiveness
- Remove or clean-up oil pollution following a spill
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.4 Aquaculture effluents
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit aquaculture activity
- Leave a fallow period during fish/shellfish farming
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.6 Garbage and solid waste
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.7 Excess energy
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.8 Other pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restrict the use of tributyltin or other toxic antifouling coatings
- Unknown effectiveness
- Remove and clean-up shoreline waste disposal sites
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and introduce some fishing restrictions (types unspecified)
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of sea urchins
- Designate a Marine Protected Area with a zonation system of activity restrictions
- Unknown effectiveness
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and install physical barriers to prevent trawling
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and only allow hook and line fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit aquaculture activity
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit bottom trawling
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit commercial fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit dredging
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of conch
- Establish community-based fisheries management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.1 Natural habitat restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- ●Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore oyster reefs
- ●Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef-forming corals
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Install a pump on or above the seabed in docks, ports, harbour, or other coastal areas to increase oxygen concentration
- ●Refill disused borrow pits
- ●Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore mussel beds
- ●Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore seagrass beds/meadows
- ●Restore coastal lagoons
- ●Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef- or bed-forming molluscs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.2 Habitat enhancement
- Beneficial
- ●Provide artificial shelters
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Landscape or artificially enhance the seabed (natural habitats)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.3 Artificial habitat creation
- Likely to be beneficial
- ●Create artificial reefs
- ●Create artificial reefs of different 3-D structure and material used
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems to benefit from nutrient run-offs
- ●Repurpose obsolete offshore structures to act as artificial reefs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.4 Other habitat restoration and creation interventions
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Offset habitat loss from human activity by restoring or creating habitats elsewhere
- ●Remove and relocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species before onset of impactful activities
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate species - Translocate molluscs
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release crustaceans
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release molluscs
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit the harvesting of scallops
- Tag species to prevent illegal fishing or harvesting
- Translocate species - Translocate crustaceans
- Translocate species - Translocate worms
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species in predator exclusion cages
- No evidence found (no assessment)
14. Marine and freshwater mammal conservation
Anna Berthinussen, Rebecca K. Smith et William J. Sutherland
14. Marine and freshwater mammal conservation- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use acoustic devices at aquaculture systems
- Unknown effectiveness
- Replace or repair damaged anti-predator nets around aquaculture systems
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Translocate mammals away from aquaculture systems to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.4.1 Reduce hunting and persecution
- Beneficial
- ●Prohibit or restrict hunting of marine and freshwater mammal species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.4.2 Reduce unwanted catch (’bycatch’) of mammals and improve survival of released or escaped mammals
- Likely to be beneficial
- ●Increase visual detectability of fishing gear for mammals
- ●Install exclusion and/or escape devices for mammals on fishing nets
- ●Modify fishing pots and traps to exclude mammals
- ●Use acoustically reflective fishing gear materials
- ●Use catch and hook protection devices on fishing gear
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- ●Use acoustic devices on fishing gear
- ●Use acoustic devices on fishing vessels
- ●Use acoustic devices on moorings
- Unknown effectiveness
- ●Deploy fishing gear at different depths
- ●Establish handling and release protocols for mammals captured by fisheries
- ●Establish ‘move-on rules’ for fishing vessels if mammals are encountered
- ●Install barriers at wild fisheries
- ●Play predator calls to deter mammals from fishing gear
- ●Switch off artificial lighting at wild fisheries
- ●Use a larger mesh size for fishing trap-nets
- ●Use acoustic decoys to divert mammals away from fishing gear
- ●Use an electric current to deter mammals from fishing gear
- ●Use noise aversive conditioning to deter mammals from fishing gear
- ●Use stiffened materials or increase tension of fishing gear
- ●Use ‘mammal-safe’ nets to capture and release mammals trapped in fishing structures
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- ●Attach acoustically reflective objects to fishing gear
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.5.1 Recreational activities and tourism
- Likely to be beneficial
- Introduce and enforce regulations for marine and freshwater mammal watching tours
- Limit, cease or prohibit feeding of marine and freshwater mammals by tourists
- Use volunteers to deter tourists from harassing marine and freshwater mammals at wildlife-viewing sites
- Unknown effectiveness
- Inform the public of ways to reduce disturbance to marine and freshwater mammals (e.g. use educational signs)
- Train tourist guides to minimize disturbance and promote marine and freshwater mammal conservation
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.5.2 Work and other activities
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.7.1 Invasive or problematic species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use baited lines instead of nets for shark control
- Unknown effectiveness
- Use deterrents to reduce predation on marine and freshwater mammals by native species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.7.2 Disease
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use drugs to treat parasites
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.1 General
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.2 Domestic and urban wastewater
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.3 Industrial and military effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.4 Aquaculture effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.6 Other pollution
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.7 Fishing gear
- Beneficial
- Remove derelict fishing gear from mammals found entangled
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.8 Other garbage and solid waste
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.9 Noise pollution
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use acoustic devices to deter marine and freshwater mammals from an area to reduce noise exposure
- Unknown effectiveness
- Use methods to dampen underwater noise emissions (e.g. bubble curtains, screens)
- Use ‘soft start’ procedures to deter marine and freshwater mammals to reduce noise exposure
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.8.10 Thermal pollution
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.12.1 Species recovery
- Beneficial
- Rescue and release stranded or trapped marine and freshwater mammals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Rehabilitate and release injured, sick or weak marine and freshwater mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned marine and freshwater mammal young
- Remove individual marine and freshwater mammals exhibiting aggressive behaviours that may limit population recovery
- Unknown effectiveness
- Reunite abandoned marine and freshwater mammal young with parents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.12.2 Translocation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate marine and freshwater mammals to re-establish or boost native populations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 14.12.3 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex-situ conservation)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Breed marine and freshwater mammals in captivity
- Unknown effectiveness
- Release captive-bred marine and freshwater mammals to re-establish or boost native populations
15. Terrestrial mammal conservation
Nick Littlewood, Ricardo Rocha, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
15. Terrestrial mammal conservation- Beneficial
- Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation by domestic animals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Keep cats indoors or in outside runs to reduce predation of wild mammals
- Prevent mammals accessing potential wildlife food sources or denning sites to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict
- Scare or otherwise deter mammals from human-occupied areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Unknown effectiveness
- Install underpasses beneath ski runs
- Issue enforcement notices to deter use of non bear-proof garbage dumpsters to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Provide diversionary feeding for mammals to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict
- Provide woody debris in ski run area
- Retain wildlife corridors in residential areas
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Translocate problem mammals away from residential areas (e.g. habituated bears) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.2.1 All farming systems
- Beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Likely to be beneficial
- Establish wild flower areas on farmland
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- Plant new or maintain existing hedgerows on farmland
- Plant trees on farmland
- Provide or retain set-aside areas on farmland
- Unknown effectiveness
- Use repellent on slug pellets to reduce non-target poisoning
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.2.2 Annual and perennial non-timber crops
- Beneficial
- Plant crops to provide supplementary food for mammals
- Unknown effectiveness
- Create beetle banks on farmland
- Establish long-term cover on erodible cropland
- Leave cut vegetation in field to provide cover
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching
- Beneficial
- Reduce intensity of grazing by domestic livestock
- Likely to be beneficial
- Change type of livestock
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
- Install mammal crossing points along fences on farmland
- Use livestock fences that are permeable to wildlife
- Unknown effectiveness
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- 15.2.4 Reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Beneficial
- Deter predation of livestock by using shock/electronic dog-training collars to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Install electric fencing to protect crops from mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Install electric fencing to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Install non-electric fencing to exclude predators or herbivores and reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use guardian animals (e.g. dogs, llamas, donkeys) bonded to livestock to deter predators to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Likely to be beneficial
- Exclude wild mammals using ditches, moats, walls or other barricades to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Install metal grids at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Keep livestock in enclosures to reduce predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Pay farmers to compensate for losses due to predators/ wild herbivores to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Provide diversionary feeding to reduce crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use bees to deter crop damage by mammals (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use chili to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use fire to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use flags to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use lights and sound to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use loud noises to deter crop damage (e.g. banger sticks, drums, tins, iron sheets) by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use loud noises to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use predator scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use repellents that taste bad (‘contact repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use scent to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use target species distress calls or signals to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use taste-aversion to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to deter human-wildlife conflict
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate crop raiders away from crops (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Translocate predators away from livestock to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Unknown effectiveness
- Deter predation of livestock by herding livestock using adults instead of children to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Deter predation of livestock by mammals by having people close by to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Dispose of livestock carcasses to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Drive wild animals away using domestic animals of the same species to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Fit livestock with protective collars to reduce risk of predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Install automatically closing gates at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Provide diversionary feeding to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Relocate local pastoralist communities to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use dogs to guard crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use drones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use light/lasers to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use negative stimuli to deter consumption of livestock feed by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use noise aversive conditioning to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use repellents that smell bad (‘area repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use target species scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use ultrasonic noises to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use visual deterrents (e.g. scarecrows) to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Use ‘shock collars’ to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use lights and sound to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.4.1 Roads and railroads
- Beneficial
- Install barrier fencing along roads
- Install barrier fencing and underpasses along roads
- Install overpasses over roads/railways
- Install rope bridges between canopies
- Likely to be beneficial
- Install fences around existing culverts or underpasses under roads/railways
- Install ledges in culverts under roads/railways
- Install one-way gates or other structures to allow wildlife to leave roadways
- Install pole crossings for gliders/flying squirrels
- Install signage to warn motorists about wildlife presence
- Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under railways
- Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under roads
- Install wildlife exclusion grates/cattle grids
- Install wildlife warning reflectors along roads
- Modify vegetation along railways to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness to mammals
- Provide food/salt lick to divert mammals from roads or railways
- Unknown effectiveness
- Close roads in defined seasons
- Dig trenches around culverts under roads/railways
- Install acoustic wildlife warnings along roads
- Install barrier fencing along railways
- Install traffic calming structures to reduce speeds
- Install wildlife crosswalks
- Modify culverts to make them more accessible to mammals
- Modify the roadside environment to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness of road verges to mammals
- Reduce legal speed limit
- Use road lighting to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Fit vehicles with ultrasonic warning devices
- Use chemical repellents along roads or railways
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.4.2 Utility and service lines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Install crossings over/under pipelines
- 15.4.3 Shipping lanes
- Likely to be beneficial
- Install overpasses over waterways
- Provide mammals with escape routes from canals
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Prohibit or restrict hunting of a species
- Provide/increase anti-poaching patrols
- Set hunting quotas based on target species population trends
- Unknown effectiveness
- Ban exports of hunting trophies
- Ban private ownership of hunted mammals
- Incentivise species protection through licensed trophy hunting
- Prohibit or restrict hunting of particular sex/ breeding status/age animals
- Site management for target mammal species carried out by field sport practitioners
- Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting impacts
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Thin trees within forest
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Use selective harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Unknown effectiveness
- Allow forest to regenerate naturally following logging
- Apply fertilizer to trees
- Clear or open patches in forests
- Fell trees in groups, leaving surrounding forest unharvested
- Gather coarse woody debris into piles after felling
- Leave coarse woody debris in forests
- Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
- Plant trees following clearfelling
- Provide supplementary feed to reduce tree damage
- Remove competing vegetation to allow tree establishment in clearcut areas
- Retain dead trees after uprooting
- Retain understorey vegetation within plantations
- Retain undisturbed patches during thinning operations
- Retain wildlife corridors in logged areas
- Use thinning of forest instead of clearcutting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Exclude or limit number of visitors to reserves or protected areas
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites
- Use non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans
- Use prescribed burning
- Use signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate mammals that have habituated to humans (e.g. bears)
- Unknown effectiveness
- Habituate mammals to visitors
- Treat mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Burn at specific time of year
- Provide artificial waterholes in dry season
- Remove mid-storey vegetation in forest
- Remove trees and shrubs to recreate open areas of land
- Thin trees to reduce wildfire risk
- Unknown effectiveness
- Provide supplementary food after fire
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove burnt trees and branches after wildfire
- Remove understorey vegetation in forest
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases
- Beneficial
- Remove/control non-native mammals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove/control non-native mammals within a fenced area
- Use conditioned taste aversion to prevent non-target species from entering traps
- Use drugs to treat parasites
- Use reward removal to prevent non-target species from entering traps
- Unknown effectiveness
- Modify traps used in the control/eradication of non-native species to avoid injury of non-target mammal
- Remove/control non-native invertebrates
- Remove/control non-native plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.8.2 Problematic native species/diseases
- Beneficial
- Use vaccination programme
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cull disease-infected animals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove or control predators
- Unknown effectiveness
- Control ticks/fleas/lice in wild mammal populations
- Establish populations isolated from disease
- Provide diversionary feeding for predators
- Remove or control competitors
- Sterilize predators
- Train mammals to avoid problematic species
- Treat disease in wild mammals
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.8.3 Other
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use fencing to exclude grazers or other problematic species
- Use fencing to exclude predators or other problematic species
- Beneficial
- Provide artificial dens or nest boxes on trees
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create or maintain corridors between habitat patches
- Manage vegetation using livestock grazing
- Provide artificial refuges/breeding sites
- Remove vegetation by hand/machine
- Restore or create forest
- Restore or create grassland
- Restore or create savannas
- Restore or create shrubland
- Unknown effectiveness
- Apply fertilizer to vegetation to increase food availability
- Manage vegetation using grazing by wild herbivores
- Manage wetland water levels for mammal species
- Provide more small artificial breeding sites rather than fewer large sites
- Restore or create wetlands
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove vegetation using herbicides
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 15.13.1 Translocate mammals
- Beneficial
- Release translocated mammals into fenced areas
- Translocate to re-establish or boost populations in native range
- Likely to be beneficial
- Hold translocated mammals in captivity before release
- Provide supplementary food during/after release of translocated mammals
- Translocate predators for ecosystem restoration
- Use holding pens at release site prior to release of translocated mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate mammals to reduce overpopulation
- Unknown effectiveness
- Airborne translocation of mammals using parachutes
- Use tranquilizers to reduce stress during translocation
- 15.13.2 Captive-breeding
- Beneficial
- Breed mammals in captivity
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use artificial insemination
- Unknown effectiveness
- Clone rare species
- Place captive young with captive foster parents
- Preserve genetic material for use in future captive breeding programs
- 15.13.3 Release captive-bred mammals
- Beneficial
- Provide supplementary food during/after release of captive-bred mammals
- Release captive-bred individuals to re-establish or boost populations in native range
- Release captive-bred mammals into fenced areas
- Use holding pens at release site prior to release of captive-bred mammals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Captive rear in large enclosures prior to release
- Provide live natural prey to captive mammals to foster hunting behaviour before release
- Unknown effectiveness
- Train captive-bred mammals to avoid predators
- 15.13.4 Release captive-bred/translocated mammals
- Beneficial
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in areas with invasive/problematic species eradication/control
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in family/ social groups
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals into area with artificial refuges/breeding sites
- Likely to be beneficial
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals at a specific time (e.g. season, day/night)
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in larger unrelated groups
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to areas outside historical range
- Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to islands without invasive predators
- 15.13.5 Other
- Likely to be beneficial
- Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with captive foster parents
- Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with wild foster parents
- Provide supplementary water to increase reproduction/ survival
- Rehabilitate injured, sick or weak mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned young in captivity
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproduction/ survival
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease/reduce payments to cull mammals
- Graze herbivores on pasture, instead of sustaining with artificial foods
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Encourage community-based participation in land management
- Provide education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
- Publish data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts
- Train and support local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals
- Unknown effectiveness
- Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
- No evidence found (no assessment)