1.1 |
Schematic of the six major functional elements of the university. |
8 |
1.2 |
Number of public and private institutions in each Carnegie category of the data set used for analysis. See text for details. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
11 |
1.3 |
All 1174 universities and colleges in the data set, showing location, Carnegie Classification, and public or private control. Alaska and Hawaii are not to scale. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
12 |
2.1 |
Average total institutional budget (FY2017 non-hospital revenues) for the universities and colleges in the data set, by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
13 |
2.2 |
FY2017 total non-hospital revenues compared to total FTE employees (upper) and twelve-month FTE student enrollment (lower) by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
15 |
2.3 |
FY1987 and FY2017 total Fall enrollment (i.e., headcount, including part-time and full-time) of undergraduate students and graduate and first professional (e.g., JD, MD) students, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
18 |
2.4 |
Growth in total enrollment (all undergraduate, graduate and first professional students) relative to FY1987, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
19 |
2.5 |
Trends in revenues and expenses (current dollars not adjusted for inflation or enrollment) by fiscal year averaged across the four public and private institution types. The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
20 |
2.6 |
Share of FY2017 non-hospital revenues averaged across types of public and private institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
21 |
2.7 |
Share of FY2017 non-hospital revenues averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
24 |
2.8 |
Published FY2018 annual undergraduate tuition and required fees by control and Carnegie classification, showing in-state tuition as well as combined additional tuition and fees for out-of-state students for the public institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
25 |
2.9 |
Inflation-adjusted trends in published annual undergraduate tuition and required fees at public (in-state and out-of-state amounts) and private institutions, FY1964–2018, in 2016 dollars. Prior to FY1988, private institution data include for-profit institutions. The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: NCES Digest (National Center for Education Statistics 2016) for pre-FY1988 data and IPEDS (2020). |
26 |
2.10 |
Percentages of FY2016 gross tuition and fee budget (all degree levels) comprised of net tuition and fee revenue and associated financial aid expenditures, averaged across types of institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
27 |
2.11 |
Average FY2016 aid discounts (for all degree levels) averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Unrestricted and restricted institutional aid comprise the total institutional aid; Pell grants and other federal, state and local grants comprise government aid. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
28 |
2.12 |
FY2017 core revenues per full-time equivalent (FTE) student enrollment averaged by control and Carnegie classification. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
29 |
2.13 |
Trends in core revenues per FTE of student enrollment (2016 dollars) by fiscal year, averaged across public institutions (upper panel) and private institutions (lower panel). The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Gifts and investment return at public institutions were combined with other core revenue prior to FY2010; dashed lines indicate estimated amounts based on their FY2010 proportions. Investment return amounts below zero (losses) in FY2009 and FY2016 at private institutions are indicated in italics within the chart. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
30 |
2.14 |
Trends in total core revenues per FTE of student enrollment (2016 dollars) by fiscal year, averaged across public institutions and private institutions. The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
31 |
2.15 |
Types of university revenue funds. Restricted funds are limited to externally stipulated uses. Unrestricted funds can be used for the general running of the institution. Some unrestricted funds may be designated by the university for special purposes. |
33 |
2.16 |
Revenues broadly associated with primary activity (the educational mission) provide necessary leverage to enable other activities and their associated revenues. Revenue segments are for R1 public institutions illustrated in 2.7 |
35 |
2.17 |
Fall 2016 first-time undergraduate enrollment percentage mix of in-state, out-of-state and international students at institutions, averaged by control and Carnegie classification. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
36 |
3.1 |
Percentages of FY2017 non-hospital expenditures averaged across institution types, by nature of expense. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
39 |
3.2 |
Percentages of FY2017 non-hospital expenditures averaged across institution types, by function of expense. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
40 |
3.3 |
Percentages of FY2017 non-hospital functional expenditures averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
42 |
3.4 |
FY2017 Educational and Related (E & R) expenditures per full-time equivalent student averaged by control and Carnegie classification. See text for estimate of R1 instructional spending without faculty research time. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
44 |
3.5 |
Trends in Educational and Related (E & R), non-E & R and total expenditures per FTE of student enrollment (2016 dollars) averaged across public and private institutions. The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
45 |
3.6 |
FY2016 Net tuition and fee revenue and remaining subsidy portions of Educational and Related (E & R) expenditures averaged by control and Carnegie classification. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
46 |
3.7 |
Trends in the net tuition and fee revenue portion of Educational and Related (E & R) expenditures averaged for public and private institutions (including the R1 and baccalaureate publics). The vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
47 |
3.8 |
FY2016 breakout of net tuition and fee revenue (in-state and out-of-state) and subsidy portions (institutional and government aid plus other institutional subsidy) of Educational and Related (E & R) expenditures per FTE enrollment for public institutions averaged by Carnegie classification. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
48 |
3.9 |
Student-oriented net price view of contribution to FY2016 total Educational and Related (E & R) costs per FTE enrollment for public institutions averaged by Carnegie classification. Net price is calculated using the assumptions of the model described in the text, including the same aid rate for in and out of state students. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
48 |
3.10 |
Trends in the Higher Education Price Index (HEPI) and Consumer Price Index (CPI) set equal to 1.0 in 1961 (upper panel) and trends in the annual inflation rate for each index (lower panel). Sources: Commonfund Institute (2017a) and BLS (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2018b). |
53 |
3.11 |
Examples of cost-reduction approaches for higher education targeted at Baumol effects (Adams and Shannon 2006) and Bowen effects (Martin and Gillen 2009). |
55 |
4.1 |
Public higher education funding flows with arrow thickness scaled to FY2012. State funding includes appropriations as well as grants and contracts for research. Federal and state flows represent aid to undergraduates. Federal grants to states include only higher education programs related to affordability. Land-grant appropriations and federally funded research projects are included as part of the funding from the Federal Government. Benefits from tax credits and deductions for higher education are not included. Source: redrafted from GAO (US Government Accountability Office 2014), Public domain, https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-151. |
60 |
4.2 |
Student financial aid and loans for FY2017. Source: College Board (Baum et al. 2017). |
61 |
4.3 |
Average federal aid and non-federal loans per FTE undergraduate (upper panel) and graduate student (lower panel) in 2016 dollars by academic year. The shaded vertical bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: College Board (Baum et al. 2017). |
62 |
4.4 |
State grant aid per FTE (in-state and out-of-state) undergraduate in 2015 dollars by academic year. The wider shaded bar indicates the onset of the Great Recession. Source: College Board (Baum et al. 2017). |
63 |
4.5 |
FY2016 average grant aid per award and percentage of enrolled FTE awarded by state, including the District of Columbia (DC), Puerto Rico (PR), and the national average (USA). Source: NASSGAP (2017). |
64 |
4.6 |
FY2016 average percentage of need-based and non-need-based state grant aid per award, including the District of Columbia (DC), Puerto Rico (PR), and the national average (USA). Source: NASSGAP (2017). |
65 |
4.7 |
FY2016 government grant aid to first-time full-time (FTFT) undergraduates by average amount per student awarded and by percentage of students awarded from federal (upper panel) and state and local sources (lower panel), averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Categories are differentiated by circle size and color for easier comparison. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
66 |
4.8 |
Trends in grant aid (by fiscal years in 2016 dollars) awarded to first-time full-time (FTFT) undergraduates by percentage of students awarded (upper panel) and by average amount per student receiving an award (lower panel) from federal and state and local sources, averaged for public and private universities. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
68 |
4.9 |
FY2016 loan aid to first-time full-time (FTFT) undergraduates by average amount per student awarded and by percentage of students awarded from federal (upper panel) and all sources (lower panel), averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Categories are differentiated by circle size and color for easier comparison. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
69 |
4.10 |
FY2016 other non-federal student loan aid to first-time full-time (FTFT) undergraduates by average amount per student awarded and by percentage of students awarded, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Categories are differentiated by circle size and color for easier comparison. As a reference to highlight the different scales of these other loan data, the federal loan data from Figure 4.9 are plotted in the gray rectangle corresponding to the axis ranges used in that figure. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
70 |
4.11 |
Trends in student loan aid (by fiscal years in 2016 dollars) awarded to first-time full-time (FTFT) undergraduates by percentage of students awarded (upper panel) and by average amount per student receiving an award (lower panel) from all, federal and other sources, averaged for public and private universities. Loan data broken out by category are only available from FY2008 onwards. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
72 |
4.12 |
Historic trends in real (inflation-adjusted) GDP (calendar years) and all state expenditures (fiscal years, 2016 dollars). Sources: Bureau of Economic Analysis (2018a; 2018b). |
73 |
4.13 |
Historic trends in all state higher education appropriations (2016 dollars) and total enrollment in all public degree-granting postsecondary institutions (four-year and two-year). Sources for appropriations: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1959, odd years interpolated from even years; Grapevine for FY1960–1999 (Illinois State University, Center for the Study of Education Policy 2018); SHEEO-SHEF (2017) for FY2000–2017. Sources for enrollment: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1947, odd years interpolated from even years; NCES (National Center for Education Statistics 2017) for FY1948–2017. |
74 |
4.14 |
Historic trend in all state higher education appropriations per student in all degree-granting postsecondary institutions (four-year and two-year), in 2016 dollars using total enrollment. Sources for appropriations: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1959, odd years interpolated from even years; Grapevine for FY1960– 1999 (Illinois State University, Center for the Study of Education Policy 2018); SHEEO-SHEF (2017) for FY2000–2017. Sources for enrollment: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1947, odd years interpolated from even years; NCES (National Center for Education Statistics 2017) for FY1948–2017. |
76 |
4.15 |
Historic annual percentage change in all state higher education appropriations (2016 dollars). Sources: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1959, odd years interpolated from even years; Grapevine for FY1960–1999 (Illinois State University, Center for the Study of Education Policy 2018); SHEEO-SHEF (2017) for FY2000–2017. |
77 |
4.16 |
Historic trends in all state higher education appropriations as a percentage of real (inflation-adjusted) GDP and of all state expenditures (2016 dollars). Sources for appropriations: Snyder (1993) for FY1930–1959, odd years interpolated from even years; Grapevine for FY1960–1999 (Illinois State University, Center for the Study of Education Policy 2018); SHEEO-SHEF (2017) for FY2000–2017. Sources for state expenditures and GDP: Bureau of Economic Analysis (2018a; 2018b). |
77 |
4.17 |
Trends in state appropriations and enrollment at public institutions, averaged within and then across the four Carnegie classification groups. Amounts are in 2016 dollars by fiscal year and twelve-month full-time equivalent enrollment by academic year. To provide long-term trends prior to 2004 (dashed line), twelve-month FTE enrollment is estimated from total Fall enrollment (full-time plus part-time) by using the average 2004–2006 ratio of the two for each Carnegie group. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
79 |
4.18 |
Trends in state appropriations per student at public institutions, averaged by Carnegie classification. Amounts are in 2016 dollars per twelve-month full-time equivalent enrollment by fiscal and academic year. To provide long-term trends prior to 2004 (dashed lines), twelve-month FTE enrollment is estimated from total Fall enrollment (full-time plus part-time) by using the average 2004–2006 ratio of the two for each Carnegie group. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
79 |
4.19 |
Recent trends in state appropriations per FTE enrolled at public institutions as a percentage of Education and Related (E & R) expenditures, averaged by Carnegie classification and based on amounts in 2016 dollars per twelve-month full-time equivalent enrollment by fiscal and academic year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
80 |
4.20 |
FY2017 state and local funding for post-secondary education per student (upper panel) and ten-year change (FY2007–FY2017) in funding per student (lower panel), by state, in 2017 dollars. Source: College Board (Ma et al. 2018). |
81 |
4.21 |
FY2018 general fund expenditures by category totaled for all states. Source: NASBO (2018). |
82 |
4.22 |
Trends in percentage share of state general fund expenditures for higher education, Medicaid and corrections, FY1987–2018. Source: NASBO (2018). |
83 |
4.23 |
Recent trends in state appropriations and net tuition revenue in 2016 dollars per FTE student at public institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
84 |
4.24 |
FY2017 state higher education appropriations as a percentage share of combined educational revenues (state higher education appropriation per FTE plus net tuition revenue per FTE). Source: SHEEO-SHEF (2017). |
84 |
4.25 |
Annual percentage change in inflation-adjusted published tuition and fees (in-state) and state appropriations per FTE student enrolled at public institutions, by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
85 |
4.26 |
The 21 states with performance funding for four-year public colleges and universities in FY2018, showing percentage share of state appropriations tied to performance funding and the mix of performance metric types (unweighted proportional count) within each share. Performance funding in Kansas, Oklahoma and Missouri applies to new state appropriations only and no new funds were allocated in FY2018. Source: Li (2018). |
87 |
4.27 |
Government expenditures on public higher education as a percentage of GDP and per student in US$, both for 2014 and grouped by World Bank country income classification. Sources: UNESCO (2019) and The World Bank (2019) |
91 |
5.1 |
A generalized high-level functional organizational structure for a large research university, showing the major vice-presidential areas and selected subareas within each. These major divisions are the fundamental management, budget and employment units of the institution. |
94 |
5.2 |
FY2018 employee headcount by full-time (FT) and part-time (PT) status as well as instructional and non-instructional position, for medical and non-medical staff, all averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
95 |
5.3 |
Unadjusted trends in employee headcount by full-time and part-time status as well as instructional and non-instructional staff, averaged across all eight types of institution by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
96 |
5.4 |
Trends in instructional and non-instructional staff adjusted by total fall student enrollment, expressed as staff per 1000 students, averaged across all eight types of institution by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
97 |
5.5 |
FY2018 salaries of full-time non-medical staff, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Annual amounts are for the typical contract period with instructional staff salaries equated to nine months and non-instructional salaries for twelve months. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
98 |
5.6 |
FY2018 counts of full-time non-medical instructional staff, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
100 |
5.7 |
Trends in full-time instructional staff adjusted by total fall student enrollment per fiscal year, expressed as instructional staff per 1000 students, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
100 |
5.8 |
Trends in percentage share by rank of full-time instructional staff, averaged across all eight types of institution by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
101 |
5.9 |
FY1998–FY2018 change in percentage share by rank of full-time instructional staff, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
102 |
5.10 |
Trends in part-time instructional staff as a percentage share of total instructional staff, averaged by Carnegie classification and control per fiscal year. Complete data are unavailable for odd years FY1995–FY2015; those values are interpolated from neighboring even years. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
103 |
5.11 |
Trends in part-time faculty as a percentage of total faculty across all degree-granting postsecondary institutions (four-year and two-year) and averaged for all institutions in 5.10 Sources: NCES Digest (National Center for Education Statistics 2018c) and IPEDS (2020). |
104 |
5.12 |
FY2018 nine-month equated salaries of full-time non-medical instructional staff, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
105 |
5.13 |
FY2018 percentage differences of nine-month equated salaries of full-time non-medical instructional staff at public institutions as compared to private institutions, averaged by Carnegie classification. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
106 |
5.14 |
Trends in average inflation-adjusted faculty salaries by rank, equated to a nine-month contract, averaged across institution type by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
107 |
5.15 |
FY2009–FY2018 percentage change in average inflation-adjusted faculty salaries by rank, equated to a nine-month contract. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
107 |
5.16 |
FY2018 counts of non-instructional support staff (full-time, non-medical) by type, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
109 |
5.17 |
FY2018 twelve-month salaries for types of non-instructional support staff (full-time, non-medical), averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
110 |
5.18 |
Trends in executive/managerial administrators and professional support staff per faculty member (all full time) averaged across all eight types of institution by fiscal year. Data categories changed in FY2013 and were aligned to the closest match. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
111 |
5.19 |
FY2018 total unadjusted counts of graduate assistants (teaching, research, other) as a share of full-time graduate student fall enrollment, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
112 |
5.20 |
Trends in graduate assistant headcount adjusted by total fall student enrollment, expressed as graduate assistants per 1000 students, for public and private R1 and R2 institutions by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
113 |
5.21 |
FY2016 half-time (0.5 FTE, non-summer) graduate assistantship amount for full-time, full-year research doctoral students averaged by Carnegie classification, academic field and control. Note that data for some categories are unreliable or unavailable because of small sample sizes. Source: NPSAS: 16 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a). |
114 |
5.22 |
Trends in half-time (0.5 FTE, non-summer year) graduate assistantship amounts for full-time, full-year research doctoral students at public and private R1 and R2 institutions, and trend in the stipulated NIH pre-doctoral stipend amount for graduate research assistants (0.5 FTE, full-year), all by fiscal year in 2016 dollars. Sources: NPSAS: 16 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a) and NIH (National Institutes of Health 2016; 2019). |
115 |
5.23 |
Most recently available (FY2011) per-employee fringe benefit expenditures (equated nine-month contract) for public and private institutions, in 2016 dollars. Retirement plans are within five years of appointment; tuition and other items include restricted and unrestricted expenditures. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
116 |
5.24 |
Worker and employer contributions to health insurance premiums (single coverage) and year-to-year percentage changes in total premiums, in 2016 dollars. Source: Kaiser Family Foundation (2018). |
117 |
6.1 |
Schematic comparison of annual budgeting under an incremental process versus responsibility center management. |
125 |
6.2 |
Trends in Educational and Related (E & R) expenditures per total degrees awarded in 2016 dollars by fiscal year, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
127 |
6.3 |
Instructional expenditures per student credit hour (SCH) by field of study, expressed relative to English for four cost drivers and the net overall difference, using 2013–2015 data from the Delaware Cost Study. Data are converted to percentages from the original modeled natural log cost differences. Source: Hemelt et al. (2018). |
128 |
6.4 |
Trends in percentages of all bachelor’s degrees awarded by field of study at postsecondary institutions, per academic year at five-year intervals. Source: NCES Digest (National Center for Education Statistics 2018d). |
131 |
6.5 |
FY2018 Tenured and tenure-track faculty salaries by discipline and faculty rank, sorted by the disciplinary three-rank average. Source: CUPA-HR (College and University Professional Association for Human Resources 2019). |
136 |
6.6 |
Share of non-medical faculty in instruction, research and public service by tenure status in FY2018. Tenured and tenure track faculty are shown as combined full-time and part-time appointments (less than 3 % are part-time), while contingent faculty not on the tenure track are shown by full-time (FT) and part-time (PT) appointment. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
138 |
6.7 |
Work time distribution of full-time faculty and instructional staff by level and control of institution. Source: NCES Digest/NSOPF: 04 (National Center for Education Statistics 2008). |
142 |
6.8 |
All institutions with greater than 10,000 students in exclusively online (a.k.a. distance) enrollment for FY2019 (Fall 2018), by Carnegie classification and control, including private for-profit institutions, baccalaureate special-focus colleges, and two-year colleges. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
146 |
6.9 |
Exclusively online (distance) and blended online/face-to-face enrollment as a share of total enrollment, as well as shares of exclusively online enrollment by degree level and by location, averaged by Carnegie classification and control for FY2018 (Fall 2017). Source: IPEDS (2020). |
148 |
6.10 |
Survey responses of chief online officers at public and private four-year institutions regarding net cost or revenue generation of online programs, tuition rates charged, and whether online budget allocations are dedicated to online, split between online, academic departments and the general institution, or combined with all revenue for general use. Categories do not total 100 because of omitted responses and/or multiple rates at some institutions. Source: CHLOE 2 (Legon and Garrett 2018). |
150 |
6.11 |
FY2018 undergraduate and graduate international enrollment as a share of total enrollment, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
152 |
6.12 |
Trends in undergraduate and graduate international enrollment by fiscal year, totaled across the eight institution types. Values for FY1986, FY1988 and FY1990 are interpolated from neighboring years. Shaded bars indicate the onset of major changes in immigration policy (FY2002 and FY 2017) and the Great Recession (FY2009). Source: IPEDS (2020). |
153 |
6.13 |
All international higher education students in the US and their primary source of funding, FY2019. Source: IIE (Institute of International Education 2019). |
154 |
6.14 |
Recent trends in international higher education students studying in the US by leading countries of origin, FY2018. Source: IIE (Institute of International Education 2019). |
155 |
6.15 |
FY2017 share of library expenditures for personnel and other operations and for resource materials, including ongoing subscriptions (e.g., journals), one-time acquisitions (e.g., books), and other materials, averaged across institutional categories. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
157 |
6.16 |
Trends in library expenditures for ongoing subscriptions (e.g., journals) and one-time acquisitions (e.g., books) for the median of Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and the average of R1 public and R1 private institutions respectively, by fiscal year in 2016 dollars. ARL data from FY2012 onward are adjusted to account for a survey methodology change. Note that R1 data are available only in even years before FY2014. Sources: ARL (2016) and IPEDS (2020). |
157 |
6.17 |
Average cost per citation for journal subscription bundles from 19 nonprofit and 6 for-profit publishers. Source: Bergstrom et al. (2014). |
158 |
6.18 |
FY2016 central IT expenditures per institutional FTE (full-time equivalent students, faculty and staff) divided into primary spending categories of personnel compensation and fringe benefits, infrastructure and services provided in-house (e.g., hardware software, network cabling), and those provided through external entities (e.g., third party email and web services), by classification (research, master’s, or baccalaureate) and control. Source: EDUCAUSE (Lang 2017). |
160 |
6.19 |
FY2016 functional domain area spending as a percentage of central IT spending, averaged across all types of four-year institutions. Source: EDUCAUSE (Lang 2017). |
162 |
6.20 |
FY2016 and FY2018 shares of annual expenditures for ERP, administrative and instructional software and services, averaged across all public and private four-year colleges and universities, sorted by growing (upper portion) or shrinking share (lower portion). Source: Campus Computing Survey (Green 2007–2018). |
163 |
7.1 |
Share of FY2018 recruiting budget allocated to specific marketing and recruitment activities from a survey of 126 four-year institutions, including public institutions of all sizes and predominantly smaller private institutions. Source: RNL (Ruffalo Noel Levitz 2018). |
166 |
7.2 |
Percentage of admitted applicants and subset of those who enrolled for FY2018, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
166 |
7.3 |
Yield, or percentage of admitted applicants that subsequently enrolled, for FY2018, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
168 |
7.4 |
Range of 25th to 75th percentile values of standardized test scores of admitted applicants for FY2018, expressed as score percentiles for comparison, on the SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW), SAT Mathematics, ACT Composite, ACT English and ACT Mathematics tests, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Sources: IPEDS (2020), The College Board (2018) and ACT (2019). |
169 |
7.5 |
FY2017 representation of first-time, full-time undergraduate degree-seeking students (including those awarded and not awarded aid) by family income level, expressed as percentage difference from the corresponding distributional share of the US average household income, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Sources: IPEDS (2020) and IPUMS (Flood et al. 2018). |
170 |
7.6 |
FY2017 share of first-time, full-time undergraduate degree-seeking students awarded grant and scholarship aid by family income level, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
171 |
7.7 |
FY2017 amount of grant and scholarship aid and net price by family income level for first-time, full-time undergraduate degree-seeking students awarded Title IV aid, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Amounts for public institutions are at in-state rates. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
172 |
7.8 |
FY2016 undergraduate total aid amount partitioned into institutional and other aid, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: NPSAS: 16 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a). |
174 |
7.9 |
FY2016 share of undergraduate institutional aid partitioned into need-based, merit, and athletic scholarships, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: NPSAS: 16 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a). |
175 |
7.10 |
Trends in tuition discount rates for full-time first-time undergraduates, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Values for public institutions are weighted to account for proportions of in-state and out-of-state students. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
177 |
7.11 |
Full-time retention rate, defined as the percentage of the fall full-time first-time cohort from the prior year that re-enrolled at the same institution in the current year, for fiscal years 2005 and 2018, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
179 |
7.12 |
FY2018 rates (Fall 2011 entering cohort) for completion of bachelor’s or equivalent degrees in four years or less, five years, and six years, students still enrolled, known transfers out to another institution, and individuals no longer enrolled, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
181 |
7.13 |
Six-year outcomes by starting institution type for the Fall 2012 cohort based on National Student Clearinghouse data. Source: NSC Research Center (Shapiro et al. 2018). |
182 |
7.14 |
Trends in two bachelor’s degree graduation metrics, the six-year graduation rate for the total cohort (available since FY2005) and degrees awarded per enrolled student (available since FY1987), both expressed relative to their starting values to enable comparison, averaged by fiscal year across public and private institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
183 |
7.15 |
Trends in student services expenditures per student FTE (in 2016 dollars) and in the student services share of E & R expenditures averaged across public and private institutions, by fiscal year. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
184 |
7.16 |
FY2017 share of first-time full-time students living on campus, off campus (not with family) and living with family. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
185 |
7.17 |
FY2017 non-tuition costs of attendance for the full academic year by lodging arrangement for first-time full-time students, averaged across all types of institution. Room and board charges are shown separately for on-campus students and are not provided for students living with family. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
186 |
7.18 |
FY2017 total cost of attendance and component costs of published tuition and required fees (left and right columns are in-state and out-of-state for public institutions), books and supplies, and weighted averages for room and board and other expenses (weighted by the mix of students staying on campus, off campus and with family), as well as net price (total cost after deducting total federal, state, local and institutional grant aid), for first-time full-time undergraduates for the full academic year. Total aid is the upper portion of each column not covered by net price. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
187 |
7.19 |
Trends in component costs of attendance expressed relative to their FY2000 amounts in inflation-adjusted dollars, averaged across all types of institutions (using in-state amounts for publics). Source: IPEDS (2020). |
188 |
7.20 |
Trends in median family income and in net price for four-year public and private institutions, by fiscal year (median family income is for the previous calendar year), in 2016 dollars. Sources: US Census Bureau (2018b) and College Board (Ma et al. 2018). |
189 |
7.21 |
Trends in net price as a share of median family income for four-year public and private institutions, by fiscal year (median family income is for the previous calendar year), in 2016 dollars. Sources: US Census Bureau (2018b) and College Board (Ma et al. 2018). |
190 |
7.22 |
FY2016 share of graduates with debt (upper) and average debt of those with debt (lower) by degree level, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Professional practice degrees include the doctor degree in chiropractic, dentistry, law, medicine, optometry, pharmacy, podiatry, and veterinary medicine. Blanks indicate that minimum reporting standards were not met. Source: NPSAS 2016 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a). |
192 |
7.23 |
Five-year repayment rates on federal student loans by ending fiscal year for two-year averages (i.e., borrowers entering repayment in FY2006 and FY2007 comprise the FY2012 amount, and likewise those entering in FY2011 and FY2012 comprise the FY2017 amount), averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Repayment is defined as paying down at least one dollar of loan principal after five years. Source: College Scorecard (US Department of Education 2019a). |
194 |
7.24 |
Five-year repayment rates on federal student loans for the two-year averages of borrowers entering repayment in FY2011 and FY2012 (i.e., five years ending FY2017), by degree completion status and dependency status, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Repayment is defined as paying down at least one dollar of loan principal after five years. Source: College Scorecard (US Department of Education 2019a). |
195 |
7.25 |
Inflation-adjusted price changes for educational books and supplies (relative to FY1967) and for college textbooks (relative to FY2002, starting at the matching value) from the consumer price index, and the price of new and used textbooks from college bookstore surveys (relative to FY2008, also starting at the matching value). Source: BLS (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2019b) and NACS (2019a). |
196 |
7.26 |
Student-reported spending on textbooks from three surveys, each averaged across all types of institution, by fiscal year in FY2016 dollars. Sources: Student Monitor/SM (Kestenbaum 2014; Business Wire 2018), NACS (2019b), and NPSAS 2016 (National Center for Education Statistics 2018a). |
197 |
7.27 |
Share of student-reported spending on types of textbooks by fiscal year. Source: Student Monitor (Business Wire 2018). |
197 |
7.28 |
Recent trends in inflation-adjusted US college store sales and sales per postsecondary student (Fall enrollment), by fiscal year. Sources: NACS (2019a) and IPEDS (2020). |
199 |
8.1 |
FY2017 revenues from all grants and contracts (research and non-research) by source, and expenditures on research from all sources (external and institutional), by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
203 |
8.2 |
FY2017 total research and development expenditures for the 25 highest-ranked institutions. Source: NSF HERD (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics 2018a). |
203 |
8.3 |
Trend in higher education research and development expenditures from all sources, in FY 2016 dollars by fiscal year. Source: NSF HERD (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics 2018a). |
205 |
8.4 |
Trends in shares of higher education research and development expenditures by source, in FY 2016 dollars by fiscal year. Source: NSF HERD (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics 2018a). |
206 |
8.5 |
Trends in federal science and engineering research and development funding to universities by agency, in FY2016 dollars by fiscal year. Agency acronyms are for the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS, which includes the National Institutes of Health, NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Defense (DOD), the Department of Energy (DOE), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). Source: NSF Federal Support (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics 2018b). |
207 |
8.6 |
FY2017 federal higher education research and development expenditures as shares (left) and total dollars (right), by agency and field. Source: NSF HERD (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics 2018a). |
209 |
8.7 |
Percent of faculty respondents reporting a substantial (some to very much) workload for those that experience the listed research compliance responsibility. Source: FDP (Schneider et al. 2014). |
218 |
8.8 |
Gross license income averaged for public and private institutions by quintile of all R1 institutions in FY2015, FY2016 and FY2017 (current dollars). Source: AUTM (2020). |
219 |
8.9 |
Invention disclosures, new patent applications and patents granted, averaged across R1 institutions by fiscal year. Source: AUTM (2020). |
221 |
8.10 |
Total licenses and options, gross license income in FY2016 dollars and new start-up companies formed, averaged across R1 institutions by fiscal year. Source: AUTM (2020). |
221 |
9.1 |
Example revenue sources budget for a typical cooperative extension service at a land grant university. Percentage ranges in parentheses are from APLU (Association of Public & Land-Grant Universities 2019). |
224 |
9.2 |
Recent trends in federal and state funding for cooperative extension, including funding mechanism (stacked columns) and total expenditures (extension plus research) at the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA), by fiscal year. Sources: NIFA (National Institute of Food and Agriculture 2019a; 2019b). |
225 |
9.3 |
Shares of example revenue and expenditure budgets for a moderate to large university performing arts center. Note that major capital and facilities costs are excluded. |
229 |
9.4 |
Revenue mix for four example university museum budgets. See text for details. |
232 |
9.5 |
Expenditure mix for four example university museum budgets. See text for details. |
233 |
9.6 |
Number of university presses and percentage of institutions with a university press, by Carnegie classification and control. Sources: Association of University Presses (2019) and IPEDS (2020). |
235 |
9.7 |
FY2018 sources of university press funding. Source: AUP (Association of University Presses 2019). |
235 |
9.8 |
FY2014 average staff and non-staff costs per monograph by core department, as well as general and administrative (G & A) costs, other overhead costs, and in-kind costs (e.g., contributed staff time, author-paid fees and office space) at the press level. Source: Ithaka S+R (Maron et al. 2016). |
237 |
10.1 |
Hard costs (construction and construction contingency) and soft costs ( “everything else”) per gross square foot for a variety of campus building types from a 2016 study. Source: D’Angelo (2016). |
241 |
10.2 |
2019 construction costs per square foot of gross floor area for selected sectors, calculated as the average of high and low values within the city limits of 20 US cities. Land, permits and other soft costs are excluded. Source: Cumming Corporation (2019). |
243 |
10.3 |
Building construction age as a share of total gross square footage (GSF) across US higher education. Source: Gordian (2018). |
244 |
10.4 |
Recent trends in rates of space expansion and enrollment growth across US higher education. Source: Gordian (2018). |
245 |
10.5 |
FY2018 institutional debt (left axis) and interest on debt (right axis, note narrower scale) by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
246 |
10.6 |
Trends in interest on institutional debt as a share of total non-hospital expenditures, averaged across Carnegie classifications for public and private institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
247 |
10.7 |
Moody’s credit rating distribution for 226 public and 256 private four-year institutions, as shares of each for December 2018. Source: Moody’s Investors Service (Shaffer 2019). |
248 |
10.8 |
FY2018 utility activity per 1,000 gross square feet (GSF), with the scale for each indexed to 1 for comparison) by Carnegie classification of 172 institutions. The R3-M3 values are a weighted combination based on response count. Sources: NACUBO (2019) and APPA (2019). |
249 |
10.9 |
Trends in simple liquidity ratios averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Note that the vertical scale in the upper panel (Private) is 4X the lower panel (Public); see text for details. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
250 |
10.10 |
The ultimate academic accolade at UC Berkeley, winning a special reserved parking space along with the Nobel Prize. Source: De Comité (2017), Flickr, CC BY 2.0, https://www.flickr.com/photos/fdecomite/34688401634. |
253 |
11.1 |
FY2018 numbers of higher education institutions with medical schools and with hospitals included in the reported institutional budget, by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
258 |
11.2 |
FY2018 hospital and non-hospital portions of total institutional revenue for the 45 institutions reporting in-budget hospitals, by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
258 |
11.3 |
FY2018 shares of revenue sources supporting 141 US medical schools. Source: AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges 2019b). |
260 |
11.4 |
FY2018 supporting revenue sources averaged across 85 public and 56 private US medical schools. Source: AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges 2019b). |
261 |
11.5 |
Trends in the shares of three revenue sources for US medical schools, FY1977 to FY2018. Source: AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges 2019c). |
262 |
11.6 |
FY2018 total compensation averages for medical school faculty members (MD or equivalent) by rank and sorted by decreasing department/specialty average. Source: AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges 2019a). |
263 |
11.7 |
Share and cumulative share of FY2019 NIH spending on specific diseases and conditions for the top 50 of 292 categories. Source: NIH (National Institutes of Health 2020b). |
265 |
11.8 |
FY2019 NIH funding awarded to higher education institutions, for the top 50 of 516 listed institutions. Data for multiple units on the same campus have been combined. Source: NIH (National Institutes of Health 2020c). |
266 |
12.1 |
FY2018 total athletics revenues from all sports per institution, averaged by Carnegie classification and control. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
270 |
12.2 |
FY2018 total athletics revenues per institution averaged by athletic association, division, subdivision and control. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
271 |
12.3 |
FY2018 total athletics revenue share of overall institutional non-hospital revenues by athletic association, division, subdivision and control. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
271 |
12.4 |
FY2018 athletics revenue sources as a share of total athletic revenues by NCAA subdivision. Source NCAA (2019a). |
275 |
12.5 |
FY2003 and FY2018 student athletes as a share of all undergraduates by Carnegie classification and control. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
277 |
12.6 |
FY2003 and FY2018 student athletes as a share of all undergraduates by athletic association, division, subdivision and control. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
277 |
12.7 |
FY2003 and FY2018 total institutional athletics expenditures per student athlete averaged by athletic association, division, and subdivision. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
279 |
12.8 |
FY2018 athletics expense categories as a share of total athletic expenses by NCAA subdivision. Source NCAA (2019a). |
279 |
12.9 |
FY2018 revenues, expenses and net revenue/loss by sport for all sports with over 1,000 participants in the NCAA Division I FBS. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
281 |
12.10 |
FY2018 net revenue/loss as a share of expenses by sport for all sports with over 1,000 participants in the NCAA Division I FBS. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
281 |
12.11 |
FY2019 football and men’s basketball head coach pay for the NCAA Division I FBS Power Five conferences, including base institutional salary, bonuses paid and athletically related compensation from non-university sources. Source: USA Today (2020a; 2020b). |
283 |
12.12 |
Trends in inflation-adjusted average institutional head coach salary across all sports by athletic association, division, and subdivision. Source: EADA (Office of Postsecondary Education 2020). |
283 |
12.13 |
Summary of the strength of statistical relationships between athletic success and hypothesized benefits, based on review of 28 scholarly articles. See text for details. |
285 |
13.1 |
FY2018 gifts averaged per decile by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
287 |
13.2 |
FY2018 gifts per full-time equivalent student averaged per decile by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
288 |
13.3 |
Growth in inflation-adjusted total gifts averaged for the two smallest Carnegie classifications of private institution and for all other public and private institution types, by fiscal year. Values for 1997 and 1998 at private institutions are interpolated at the average rate of neighboring years; the average for other institutions is weighted by the number in each type. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
289 |
13.4 |
Seven decades of voluntary support for degree-granting postsecondary institutions by source of gift, in FY2016 dollars. Sources: NCES (National Center for Education Statistics 2018e) and CASE (Council for Advancement and Support of Education 2020). |
290 |
13.5 |
FY2018 distribution of gifts to higher education institutions by purpose. Source: CASE (Council for Advancement and Support of Education 2019; 2020). |
292 |
13.6 |
FY2018 endowments averaged per decile by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
294 |
13.7 |
Top 25 FY2018 university endowments and their cumulative share of all endowments in the data set. Amounts are for the main campus location and do not include branch campuses reporting separately. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
295 |
13.8 |
FY2018 endowment per full-time equivalent student averaged per decile by Carnegie classification and control. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
296 |
13.9 |
Top 25 FY2018 university endowments per full-time equivalent student and their cumulative share of all values in the data set, shaded by Carnegie classification (all are private institutions). Amounts are for the main campus location and do not include branch campuses reporting separately. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
297 |
13.10 |
Growth in inflation-adjusted endowment per full-time equivalent student, by fiscal year, with averages for public and private institutions weighted by the number of institutions in each Carnegie classification. Values for 1990 at both types of institution and for 2002 at public institutions are interpolated as the average of neighboring years, while the 1997–2002 gap at private institutions is interpolated proportional to the public institutions. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
298 |
13.11 |
Performance of an example endowment started in 1980 (upper panel) shown as a simple investment with returns tracking the S & P 500 index and as a revenue-generating endowment fund, and as components of the example endowment (lower panel) including annual return, payout, investment management fees, and a surplus (or deficit) for reinvestment (or withdrawal). Amounts are in FY2016 dollars; the inflation-adjusted initial endowment value of $3M corresponds to $1M in FY1980 dollars. See text for details. |
300 |
13.12 |
FY2019 equal-weighted average asset allocations for college and university endowments and higher education foundations. Source: NACUBO (2020). |
302 |
13.13 |
Annualized absolute returns of market portfolios excluding each of the ten market sectors, relative to the S & P 500 for 1957 to 2017 (10.25 % annualized return) and for 1989 to 2017 (9.74 % annualized return), with the non-energy portfolio highlighted. Source: Grantham (2018). |
304 |
13.14 |
Performance of S & P 500 index with all sectors and excluding the energy sector since sector indices were launched by S & P in mid-1996. Source: S & P/Investing (Investing.com 2020). |
305 |
13.15 |
Number of US universities and colleges (or their affiliated foundations) with full and limited fossil fuel divestment, as of mid-2020. University systems are counted as the number of main campuses in the system. Source: Fossil Free/350. org (Fossil Free 2020). |
306 |
13.16 |
Example gift table to raise $1M, showing the donor pyramid (shaded), estimated prospects needed to net those donors, gift amount at each level, total gifts per level, as well as overall totals for each category. See text for details. |
308 |
13.17 |
Trends in alumni of record, alumni donors and alumni participation (giving rate) at colleges and universities. Records of contactable alumni have improved dramatically, driving down the participation/giving metric. Source: CASE (Council for Advancement and Support of Education 2019). |
313 |
13.18 |
FY2018 distributions of gifts to current operations from alumni and from all donors. Source: CASE (Council for Advancement and Support of Education 2019). |
314 |
14.1 |
2018 median earnings and estimated tax payments of full-time year-round employees aged 25 and older, by education level. Estimated taxes paid at each income level include federal income, social security, Medicare, state and local income, sales, and property. Source: College Board (Ma et al. 2019). |
318 |
14.2 |
Average annual wages of graduates holding only a bachelor’s degree and those holding only a high school diploma, as well as the college wage premium (i.e., the difference), in 2018 dollars. Source: NY Fed (Abel and Dietz 2019). |
319 |
14.3 |
Economic mobility of adult children with and without a college degree from families with low and high income. Source: Brookings (Haskins 2016). |
320 |
14.4 |
FY2017 early career (ages 22–37) and mid-career (ages 35–45) median wages for full-time workers with a bachelor’s degree only, by major, with highest ten (H) and lowest ten (L) unemployment rates. Source: NY Fed (Federal Reserve Bank of New York 2019). |
321 |
14.5 |
Average effects of college selectivity on earnings after controlling for multiple pre-college, college, and post-college factors, for bachelor’s degree recipients representing a broad range of institutions four years and ten years after graduation. Source: Witteveen and Attewell (2017b). |
323 |
14.6 |
Overlapping distribution of 25th and 75th percentile SAT (Math + Verbal) scores by institution rank in the 2014 US News & World Report rankings of National Universities and Liberal Arts Colleges, including percent variance explained (R2) for each. ACT scores were converted to SAT equivalents where applicable. Note that tied ranks have a corresponding number of neighboring missing ranks. Source: Wai et al. (2018a). |
327 |
14.7 |
Summary of the strength of selected statistical relationships between institutional rankings and hypothesized related outcomes, based on the small literature of scholarly articles. See text for details. |
328 |
14.8 |
Schematic of the iron triangle of higher education, illustrating the three-way trade-offs between improving quality of education, increasing access to the institution, and constraining costs. |
334 |
14.9 |
Composite index showing the share (upper panel) and number (lower panel) of institutions with counts of financial risk indicators in the riskiest decile, by Carnegie classification and control. See text for details. Source: IPEDS (2020). |
340 |