Table des matières
1. Amphibian conservation
Rebecca K. Smith, Helen Meredith et William J. Sutherland
1. Amphibian conservation- 1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- 1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management
- Manage silviculture practices in plantations
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manage cutting regime
- Manage grazing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage ditches
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing
- Likely to be beneficial
- Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration
- Modify gully pots and kerbs
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install barrier fencing along roads
- Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use signage to warn motorists
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads
- 1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce impact of amphibian trade
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
- Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave coarse woody debris in forests
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
- Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting
- Thin trees within forests
- Beneficial
- Regulate water levels
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)
- Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)
- 1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Remove or control fish by drying out ponds
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove or control fish population by catching
- Remove or control invasive bullfrogs
- Remove or control invasive viperine snake
- Remove or control mammals
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove or control fish using Rotenone
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Exclude fish with barriers
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce competition from native amphibians
- Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control invasive plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use temperature treatment to reduce infection
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add salt to ponds
- Immunize amphibians against infection
- Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds
- Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites
- Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release
- Use gloves to handle amphibians
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection
- Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.1 Agricultural pollution
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants
- Plant riparian buffer strips
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.9.2 Industrial pollution
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.1 Terrestrial habitat
- Beneficial
- Replant vegetation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clear vegetation
- Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites
- Create refuges
- Restore habitat connectivity
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change mowing regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.12.2 Aquatic habitat
- Beneficial
- Create ponds (amphibians in general)
- Create ponds (frogs)
- Create ponds (natterjack toads)
- Create ponds (salamanders including newts)
- Create wetlands
- Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds
- Restore wetlands
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ponds (great crested newts)
- Create ponds (green toads)
- Create ponds (toads)
- Remove specific aquatic plants
- Restore ponds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 1.13.1 Translocate amphibians
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)
- Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)
- Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)
- Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)
- Translocate amphibians (toads)
- Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate amphibians (frogs)
- 1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases
- Likely to be beneficial
- Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)
- Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)
- Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)
- Head-start amphibians for release
- Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)
- Release captive-bred individuals (toads)
- Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding
- Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Freeze sperm or eggs for future use
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)
2. Bat conservation
Anna Berthinussen, Olivia C. Richardson O.C. et John D. Altringham
2. Bat conservation- Unknown effectiveness
- Change timing of building work
- Create alternative bat roosts within developments
- Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas
- Exclude bats from roosts during building work
- Legally protect bats during development
- Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites
- Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments
- Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.1 All farming systems
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry)
- Use organic farming instead of conventional farming
- Unknown effectiveness
- Create tree plantations on agricultural land to provide roosting and foraging habitat for bats
- Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats
- Introduce agri-environment schemes
- Manage hedges to benefit bats
- Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)
- Retain riparian buffers on agricultural land
- Retain unmown field margins
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.2 Livestock farming
- Unknown effectiveness
- Remove livestock modifications from water troughs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.3.1 Wind turbines
- Beneficial
- Increase the wind speed at which turbines become operational (‘cut-in speed’) to reduce bat fatalities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high
- Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound
- Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds to reduce bat fatalities
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.3.2 Mining
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access
- Unknown effectiveness
- Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines
- Restore bat foraging habitat at ex-quarry sites
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.4.1 Roads
- Likely to be beneficial
- Install overpasses as road crossing structures for bats
- Install underpasses or culverts as road crossing structures for bats
- Unknown effectiveness
- Divert bats to safe crossing points with plantings or fencing
- Install green bridges as road crossing structures for bats
- Maintain bat roosts in road bridges and culverts
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road crossing structures for bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.1 Hunting
- Unknown effectiveness
- Inform local communities about disease risks from hunting and eating bat meat to reduce killing of bats
- Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.2 Guano harvesting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Retain forested corridors in logged areas
- Thin trees within forest and woodland
- Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging
- Unknown effectiveness
- Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth
- Retain residual tree patches in logged areas
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.6.1 Caving and tourism
- Likely to be beneficial
- Impose restrictions on cave visits
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access
- Unknown effectiveness
- Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access
- Minimize noise levels within caves
- Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.1 Invasive species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control invasive predators
- Unknown effectiveness
- Control invasive plant species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.2 White-nose syndrome
- Unknown effectiveness
- Modify bat hibernacula environments to increase bat survival
- Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.3 Disease
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.8.4 Problematic native species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water
- Unknown effectiveness
- Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.3 Light pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes
- Leave bat roosts and roost entrances unlit
- Use low intensity lighting
- Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours
- Unknown effectiveness
- Avoid illumination of bat foraging, drinking and swarming sites
- Restrict timing of lighting
- Use UV filters on lights
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.4 Timber treatments
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Restrict timing of timber treatment application
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.5 Industrial effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.9.6 Noise pollution
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create artificial water sources
- Restore or create wetlands
- Unknown effectiveness
- Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats
- Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats
- Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks
- Restore or create forest or woodland
- Restore or create grassland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.13.1 Species management
- Unknown effectiveness
- Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts
- Provide bat boxes for roosting bats
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 2.13.2 Ex-situ conservation
- Unknown effectiveness
- Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Breed bats in captivity
- 2.13.3 Translocation
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Translocate bats
3. Bird conservation
David R. Williams, Matthew F. Child, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
3. Bird conservation- 3.4.1 All farming systems
- Beneficial
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Leave refuges in fields during harvest
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)
- Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control scrub on farmland
- Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds
- Manage hedges to benefit wildlife
- Plant new hedges
- Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)
- Take field corners out of management
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.2 Arable farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)
- Sow crops in spring rather than autumn
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Reduce tillage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Implement mosaic management
- Increase crop diversity to benefit birds
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Revert arable land to permanent grassland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.3 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows
- Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Reduce grazing intensity
- Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Maintain upland heath/moor
- Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling
- Provide short grass for waders
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Maintain traditional orchards
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.4.5 Aquaculture
- Likely to be beneficial
- Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear
- Disturb birds at roosts
- Provide refuges for fish within ponds
- Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds
- Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish
- Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds
- Translocate birds away from fish farms
- Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Disturb birds using foot patrols
- Spray water to deter birds from ponds
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Scare birds from fish farms
- 3.6.1 Verges and airports
- Likely to be beneficial
- Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Mow roadside verges
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons
- Beneficial
- Mark power lines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Bury or isolate power lines
- Insulate electricity pylons
- Remove earth wires from power lines
- Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Thicken earth wires
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Add perches to electricity pylons
- Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds
- Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines
- 3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict
- Scare fish-eating birds from areas to reduce conflict
- Beneficial
- Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’
- Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation
- Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’
- Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors
- Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen
- Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
- Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers
- Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching
- Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch
- Beneficial
- Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines
- Likely to be beneficial
- Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions
- Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines
- Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch
- Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch
- Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch
- Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines
- Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch
- Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide paths to limit disturbance
- Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners
- Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites
- Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Habituate birds to human visitors
- Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)
- Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Clear or open patches in forests
- Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures
- Employ grazing in natural grasslands
- Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats
- Manage water level in wetlands
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in forests
- Mow or cut natural grasslands
- Mow or cut semi-natural grasslands/pastures
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in shrublands
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Thin trees within forests
- Use prescribed burning: grasslands
- Use prescribed burning: pine forests
- Use prescribed burning: savannahs
- Use prescribed burning: shrublands
- Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clearcut and re-seed forests
- Coppice trees
- Fertilise grasslands
- Manage woodland edges for birds
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)
- Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)
- Plant trees to act as windbreaks
- Plough habitats
- Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)
- Remove coarse woody debris from forests
- Replace non-native species of tree/shrub
- Re-seed grasslands
- Use environmentally sensitive flood management
- Use fire suppression/control
- Use greentree reservoir management
- Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)
- Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting
- Use variable retention management during forestry operations
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation
- Treat wetlands with herbicides
- Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)
- Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Restore or create forests
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore or create grassland
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Restore or create shrubland
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)
- Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species
- Beneficial
- Control mammalian predators on islands
- Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control avian predators on islands
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control invasive ants on islands
- Reduce predation by translocating predators
- Evidence not assessed
- Control predators not on islands
- 3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Distribute poison bait using dispensers
- Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control
- Use repellents on baits
- Evidence not assessed
- Do birds take bait designed for pest control?
- 3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas
- Likely to be beneficial
- Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing
- Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/ barriers or provide shelters for chicks
- Protect bird nests using electric fencing
- Use artificial nests that discourage predation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Guard nests to prevent predation
- Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation
- Protect nests from ants
- Use multiple barriers to protect nests
- Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators
- Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?
- Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?
- 3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes
- Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation
- Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation
- 3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Protect nest sites from competitors
- Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)
- Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)
- 3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control or remove habitat-altering mammals
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)
- Remove problematic vegetation
- Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control
- 3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease
- Likely to be beneficial
- Remove/control adult brood parasites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism
- Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens
- Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)
- Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)
- 3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests
- 3.12.1 Industrial pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Relocate birds following oil spills
- Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Clean birds after oil spills
- 3.12.2 Agricultural pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac
- Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management
- Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes
- 3.12.4 Excess energy
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Rehabilitate injured birds
- Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output
- Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations
- 3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites
- Beneficial
- Provide artificial nests (falcons)
- Provide artificial nests (owls)
- Provide artificial nests (songbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success
- Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)
- Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)
- Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)
- Provide artificial nests (raptors)
- Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests
- Guard nests
- Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)
- Provide artificial nests (grebes)
- Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)
- Provide artificial nests (parrots)
- Provide artificial nests (pigeons)
- Provide artificial nests (rails)
- Provide artificial nests (rollers)
- Provide artificial nests (swifts)
- Provide artificial nests (trogons)
- Provide artificial nests (waders)
- Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)
- Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather
- Provide nesting material for wild birds
- Remove vegetation to create nesting areas
- Repair/support nests to support breeding
- Use differently-coloured artificial nests
- 3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild
- Likely to be beneficial
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)
- Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)
- 3.14.4 Provide supplementary food
- Beneficial
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions
- Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide perches to improve foraging success
- Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations
- Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)
- Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)
- Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success
- 3.14.5 Translocations
- Beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)
- Use decoys to attract birds to new sites
- Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture
- Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave
- Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)
- Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)
- Translocate nests to avoid disturbance
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 3.15.1 Captive breeding
- Likely to be beneficial
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)
- Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)
- Freeze semen for artificial insemination
- Use artificial insemination in captive breeding
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)
- Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)
- Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing
- Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination
- Evidence not assessed
- Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?
- 3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide supplementary food after release
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clip birds’ wings on release
- Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles
- Release birds in groups
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)
- Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)
- Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’
- Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release
- Use appropriate populations to source released populations
- Use ‘flying training’ before release
- Use holding pens at release sites
- Use microlites to help birds migrate
4. Farmland conservation
Lynn V. Dicks, Joscelyne E. Ashpole, Juliana Dänhardt et al.
4. Farmland conservation- Beneficial
- Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields
- Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips
- Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture
- Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland
- Likely to be beneficial
- Manage ditches to benefit wildlife
- Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)
- Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)
- Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat
- Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape
- Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds
- Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources
- Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing
- Plant new hedges
- Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)
- Provide nest boxes for birds
- Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)
- Provide refuges during harvest or mowing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Beneficial
- Create skylark plots
- Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Leave overwinter stubbles
- Reduce tillage
- Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland
- Create rotational grass or clover leys
- Increase crop diversity
- Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows
- Plant crops in spring rather than autumn
- Plant nettle strips
- Sow rare or declining arable weeds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option
- Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)
- Take field corners out of management
- Beneficial
- Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality
- Likely to be beneficial
- Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands
- Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields
- Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland
- Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/ waterfowl)
- Maintain upland heath/moorland
- Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)
- Restore or create traditional water meadows
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows
- Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)
- Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
- Maintain wood pasture and parkland
- Plant cereals for whole crop silage
- Raise mowing height on grasslands
- Restore or create upland heath/moorland
- Restore or create wood pasture
- Use traditional breeds of livestock
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland
- Provide short grass for birds
- Use mixed stocking
- Beneficial
- Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)
- Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally
- Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)
- Restrict certain pesticides
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Make selective use of spring herbicides
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution
- Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species
- Likely to be beneficial
- Raise water levels in ditches or grassland
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create scrapes and pools
- Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning
- Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning
- Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control scrub
- Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas
- Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Evidence not assessed
- Control bracken
- Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)
- Control mink
- Provide medicated grit for grouse
5. Forest conservation
har’El Agra, Simon Schowanek, Yohay Carmel et al.
5. Forest conservation- 5.2.1 Livestock farming
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Prevent livestock grazing in forests
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests
- Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting
- Beneficial
- Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants
- Likely to be beneficial
- Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants
- Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees
- Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees
- Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- Use summer instead of winter harvesting
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Remove woody debris after timber harves
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees
- Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants
- Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.2 Harvest forest products
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Adopt certification
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.4.3 Firewood
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.1 Changing fire frequency
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants
- Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.2 Water management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity
- Use group-selection harvesting
- Use shelterwood harvesting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)
- Use herbicides to thin trees
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use thinning followed by prescribed fire
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.1 Invasive plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants
- Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.2 Native plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.3 Herbivores
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.6.4 Rodents
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control rodents
- 5.6.5 Birds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Control birds
- 5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Thin trees after wildfire
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove burned trees
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Sow tree seeds after wildfire
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)
- 5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply herbicides after restoration planting
- Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting
- Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting
- Use selective thinning after restoration planting
- 5.10.4 Restore forest community
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal
- Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity
- Sow tree seeds
- Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 5.10.6 Increase soil fertility
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add organic matter
- Use fertilizer
- Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add lime to the soil to increase fertility
- Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Enhance soil compaction
- Beneficial
- Prepare the ground before tree planting
- Use mechanical thinning before or after planting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting
- Use herbicide after tree planting
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire after tree planting
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates
- Add lime to the soil after tree planting
- Add organic matter after tree planting
- Cover the ground with straw after tree planting
- Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)
- Manage woody debris before tree planting
- Use shading for planted trees
- Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees
- Use weed mats to protect planted trees
- Water seedlings
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting
- Use different planting or seeding methods
- Use fertilizer after tree planting
- No evidence found (no assessment)
6. Peatland conservation
Nigel G. Taylor, Patrick Grillas et William J. Sutherland
6. Peatland conservation- 6.2.1 Multiple farming systems
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cut/remove/thin forest plantations
- Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat
- 6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching
- Likely to be beneficial
- Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Reduce intensity of livestock grazing
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.7.1 Modified water management
- Beneficial
- Rewet peatland (raise water table)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Irrigate peatland
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.7.2 Modified vegetation management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance
- Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance
- Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance
- 6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.1 All problematic species
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.2 Problematic plants
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Physically remove problematic plants
- Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants
- Change season/timing of cutting/mowing
- Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs
- Use herbicide to control problematic plants
- Introduce an organism to control problematic plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.8.3 Problematic animals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Divert/replace polluted water source (s)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Clean waste water before it enters the environment
- Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.9.4 Airborne pollutants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment
- Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility
- Drain/replace acidic water
- 6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)
- Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique
- 6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants
- Remove upper layer of peat/soil
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Excavate pools
- Reprofile/relandscape peatland
- Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants
- Add inorganic fertilizer
- Cover peatland with organic mulch
- Cover peatland with something other than mulch
- Stabilize peatland surface to help plants colonize
- Build artificial bird perches to encourage seed dispersal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 6.11.3 Introduce peatland vegetation
- Beneficial
- Add mosses to peatland surface
- Add mixed vegetation to peatland surface
- Likely to be beneficial
- Directly plant peatland mosses
- Directly plant peatland herbs
- Directly plant peatland trees/shrubs
- Introduce seeds of peatland herbs
- Introduce seeds of peatland trees/shrubs
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cover peatland with organic mulch (after planting)
- Cover peatland with something other than mulch (after planting)
- Reprofile/relandscape peatland (before planting)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add inorganic fertilizer (before/after planting)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Introduce nurse plants (to aid focal peatland plants)
- Irrigate peatland (before/after planting)
- Create mounds or hollows (before planting)
- Add fresh peat to peatland (before planting)
- Remove vegetation that could compete with planted peatland vegetation
- Add root-associated fungi to plants (before planting)
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Add lime (before/after planting)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
7. Primate conservation
Jessica Junker, Hjalmar S. Kühl, Lisa Orth et al.
7. Primate conservation- 7.5.1 Hunting
- Likely to be beneficial
- Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
- Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
- Provide better equipment (e.g. guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- Implement local no-hunting community policies/ traditional hunting ban
- Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Strengthen/support/re-install traditions/taboos that forbid the killing of primates
- Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g. SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of wildlife law enforcement patrols
- Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.5.2 Substitution
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use selective logging instead of clear-cutting
- Avoid/minimize logging of important food tree species for primates
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.8.1 Problematic animal/plant species and genes
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.8.2 Disease transmission
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild primates
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
- Keep safety distance to habituated animals
- Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated animals
- Implement quarantine for primates before reintroduction/translocation
- Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
- Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
- Treat sick/injured animals
- Remove/treat external/internal parasites to increase reproductive success/survival
- Conduct veterinary screens of animals before reintroducing/translocating them
- Implement continuous health monitoring with permanent vet on site
- Detect and report dead primates and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Educate local communities about primates and sustainable use
- Involve local community in primate research and conservation management
- Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise primate conservation awareness
- Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, and discussions
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.11.1 Habitat protection
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create/protect habitat corridors
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Legally protect primate habitat
- Establish areas for conservation which are not protected by national or international legislation (e.g. private sector standards and codes)
- Create/protect forest patches in highly fragmented landscapes
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.11.2 Habitat creation or restoration
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant indigenous trees to re-establish natural tree communities in clear-cut areas
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.1 Species management
- Likely to be beneficial
- Guard habituated primate groups to ensure their safety/ well-being
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers etc.
- Implement legal protection for primate species under threat
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.2 Species recovery
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Regularly and continuously provide supplementary food to primates
- Regularly provide supplementary food to primates during resource scarce periods only
- Provide supplementary food for a certain period of time only
- Provide additional sleeping platforms/nesting sites for primates
- Provide artificial water sources
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 7.12.3 Species reintroduction
- Likely to be beneficial
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is absent
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from development sites to natural habitat elsewhere
- Translocate (capture and release) wild primates from abundant population areas to non-inhabited environments
- Allow primates to adapt to local habitat conditions for some time before introduction to the wild
- Reintroduce primates in groups
- Reintroduce primates as single/multiple individuals
- Reintroduce primates into habitat where the species is present
- Reintroduce primates into habitat with predators
- Reintroduce primates into habitat without predators
- 7.12.4 Ex-situ conservation
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and reared in cages
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: limited free-ranging experience
- Captive breeding and reintroduction of primates into the wild: born and raised in a free-ranging environment
- Rehabilitate injured/orphaned primates
- Fostering appropriate behaviour to facilitate rehabilitation
- 7.13.1 Provide benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. REDD, employment)
- Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g. better education, infrastructure development)
- 7.13.2 Long-term presence of research/tourism project
- Likely to be beneficial
- Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Run tourism project and ensure permanent human presence at site
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Permanent presence of staff/managers
8. Shrubland and Heathland conservation
Philip A. Martin, Ricardo Rocha, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
8. Shrublandand Heathland conservation- 8.8.1 Problematic tree species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Apply herbicide to trees
- Cut trees
- Cut trees and remove leaf litter
- Cut trees and remove seedlings
- Use prescribed burning to control trees
- Use grazing to control trees
- Cut trees and apply herbicide
- Cut trees and use prescribed burning
- Increase number of livestock and use prescribed burning to control trees
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.8.2 Problematic grass species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Cut/mow to control grass
- Cut/mow to control grass and sow seed of shrubland plants
- Rake to control grass
- Cut/mow and rotovate to control grass
- Apply herbicide and sow seeds of shrubland plants to control grass
- Apply herbicide and remove plants to control grass
- Use grazing to control grass
- Use precribed burning to control grass
- Cut and use prescribed burning to control grass
- Use herbicide and prescribed burning to control grass
- Strip turf to control grass
- Rotovate to control grass
- Add mulch to control grass
- Add mulch to control grass and sow seed
- Cut/mow, rotovate and sow seeds to control grass
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use herbicide to control grass
- 8.8.3 Bracken
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use herbicide to control bracken
- Cut to control bracken
- Cut and apply herbicide to control bracken
- Cut bracken and rotovate
- Use ‘bracken bruiser’ to control bracken
- Use herbicide and remove leaf litter to control bracken
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.8.4 Problematic animals
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use fences to exclude large herbivores
- Reduce numbers of large herbivores
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.1 General restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- Allow shrubland to regenerate without active management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.2 Modify physical habitat
- Likely to be beneficial
- Add topsoil
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Disturb vegetation
- Strip topsoil
- Remove leaf litter
- Add sulphur to soil
- Use erosion blankets/mats to aid plant establishment
- Add mulch and fertilizer to soil
- Add manure to soil
- Irrigate degraded shrublands
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 8.12.3 Introduce vegetation or seeds
- Beneficial
- Sow seeds
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant individual plants
- Sow seeds and plant individual plants
- Spread clippings
- Build bird perches to encourage colonization by plants
- Plant turf
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Add fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add peat to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add mulch and fertilizer to soil (alongside planting/ seeding)
- Add gypsum to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add sulphur to soil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Strip/disturb topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Add topsoil (alongside planting/seeding)
- Plant seed balls
- Plant/sow seeds of nurse plants alongside focal plants
- Plant/seed under established vegetation
- Plant shrubs in clusters
- Add root associated bacteria/fungi to introduced plants
9. Management of captive animals
Coral S. Jonas, Lydia T. Timbrell, Fey Young et al.
9. Management of captive animals- 9.1.1 Refining techniques using less threatened species
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Identify and breed a similar species to refine husbandry techniques prior to working with target species
- 9.1.2 Changing environmental conditions/microclimate
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Vary enclosure temperature to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- Vary quality or quantity (UV % or gradients) of enclosure lighting to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- Provide artificial aquifers for species which breed in upwelling springs
- Vary artificial rainfall to simulate seasonal changes in the wild
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.3 Changing enclosure design for spawning or egg laying sites
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Provide multiple egg laying sites within an enclosure
- Provide natural substrate for species which do not breed in water (e.g. burrowing/tunnel breeders)
- Provide particular plants as breeding areas or egg laying sites
- 9.1.4 Manipulate social conditions
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Manipulate sex ratio within the enclosure
- Separate sexes in non-breeding periods
- Play recordings of breeding calls to simulate breeding season in the wild
- Allow female mate choice
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.5 Changing the diet of adults
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Supplement diets with carotenoids (including for colouration)
- Increase caloric intake of females in preparation for breeding
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.6 Manipulate rearing conditions for young
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Manipulate temperature of enclosure to improve development or survival to adulthood
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Formulate larval diets to improve development or survival to adulthood
- Manipulate larval density within the enclosure
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.1.7 Artificial reproduction
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.1 Diet and food type
- Likely to be beneficial
- Provide bones, hides or partial carcasses
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Feed whole carcasses (with or without organs/ gastrointestinal tract)
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Feed commercially prepared diets
- Feed plant-derived protein
- Supplement meat-based diets with prebiotic plant material to facilitate digestion
- Supplement meat-based diet with amino acid
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.2 Food presentation and enrichment
- Beneficial
- Hide food around enclosure
- Likely to be beneficial
- Present food frozen in ice
- Present food inside objects (e.g. Boomer balls)
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Provide devices to simulate live prey, including sounds, lures, pulleys and bungees
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Change location of food around enclosure
- Scatter food around enclosure
- Provide live vertebrate prey
- Provide live invertebrate prey
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.3 Feeding schedule
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Provide food on a random temporal schedule
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Allocate fast days
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.2.4 Social feeding
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.1 Food Presentation
- Beneficial
- Scatter food throughout enclosure
- Likely to be beneficial
- Hide food in containers (including boxes and bags)
- Present food frozen in ice
- Present food items whole instead of processed
- Present feeds at different crowd levels
- Maximise both vertical and horizontal presentation locations
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Present food in puzzle feeders
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Present food in water (including dishes and ponds)
- Present food dipped in food colouring
- Provide live vegetation in planters for foraging
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.2 Diet manipulation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Formulate diet to reflect nutritional composition of wild foods (including removal of domestic fruits)
- Provide cut branches (browse)
- Provide live invertebrates
- Provide fresh produce
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.3 Feeding Schedule
- Likely to be beneficial
- Change feeding times
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Change the number of feeds per day
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 9.3.4 Social group manipulation
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Feed individuals in social groups
- No evidence found (no assessment)
10. Some aspects of control of freshwater invasive species
David Aldridge, Nancy Ockendon, Ricardo Rocha et al.
10. Some aspects of control of freshwater invasive species- 10.1.1 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using the herbicide 2,4-D
- Likely to be beneficial
- Chemical control using the herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl
- Chemical control using the herbicide triclopyr
- Chemical control using the herbicide diquat
- Chemical control using the herbicide endohall
- Chemical control using other herbicides
- Reduction of trade through legislation and codes of conduct
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Biological control using herbivores
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Water level drawdown
- Biological control using plant pathogens
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.2 Floating pennywort Hydrocotyle ranunculoides
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Likely to be beneficial
- Flame treatment
- Physical removal
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Biological control using co-evolved, host-specific herbivores
- Use of hydrogen peroxide
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.3 Water primrose Ludwigia spp.
- Likely to be beneficial
- Biological control using co-evolved, host specific herbivores
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Combination treatment using herbicides and physical removal
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Physical removal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.4 Skunk cabbage Lysichiton americanus
- Likely to be beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Physical removal
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.1.5 New Zealand pigmyweed Crassula helmsii
- Beneficial
- Chemical control using herbicides
- Decontamination to prevent further spread
- Likely to be beneficial
- Use lightproof barriers to control plants
- Use salt water to kill plants
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Use a combination of control methods
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Use dyes to reduce light levels
- Use grazing to control plants
- Use hot foam to control plants
- Use hydrogen peroxide to control plants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.3.1 Ponto-Caspian gammarids
- Likely to be beneficial
- Change salinity of the water
- Change water temperature
- Dewatering (drying out) habitat
- Exposure to parasites
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Add chemicals to water
- Change water pH
- Control movement of gammarids
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 10.3.2 Procambarus spp. crayfish
- Likely to be beneficial
- Add chemicals to the water
- Sterilization of males
- Trapping and removal
- Trapping combined with encouragement of predators
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Create barriers
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Encouraging predators
- No evidence found (no assessment)
11. Some aspects of enhancing natural pest control
Hugh L. Wright, Joscelyne E. Ashpole, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
11. Some aspects of enhancing natural pest control- Likely to be beneficial
- Grow non-crop plants that produce chemicals that attract natural enemies
- Use chemicals to attract natural enemies
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Leave part of the crop or pasture unharvested or uncut
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Plant new hedges
- Use alley cropping
- Evidence not assessed
- Use mass-emergence devices to increase natural enemy populations
- Beneficial
- Combine trap and repellent crops in a push-pull system
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Use crop rotation in potato farming systems
- Unlikely to be beneficial
- Create beetle banks
- Likely to be ineffective or harmful
- Incorporate plant remains into the soil that produce weed-controlling chemicals
12. Enhancing soil fertility
Georgina Key, Mike Whitfield, Lynn V. Dicks et al.
12. Enhancing soil fertility- Beneficial
- Amend the soil using a mix of organic and inorganic amendments
- Grow cover crops when the field is empty
- Use crop rotation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Amend the soil with formulated chemical compounds
- Grow cover crops beneath the main crop (living mulches) or between crop rows
- Trade-off between benefit and harms
- Add mulch to crops
- Amend the soil with fresh plant material or crop remains
- Amend the soil with manures and agricultural composts
- Amend the soil with municipal wastes or their composts
- Incorporate leys into crop rotation
- Retain crop residues
- Unknown effectiveness (limited evidence)
- Amend the soil with bacteria or fungi
- Amend the soil with composts not otherwise specified
- Amend the soil with crops grown as green manures
- Amend the soil with non-chemical minerals and mineral wastes
- Amend the soil with organic processing wastes or their composts
- Encourage foraging waterfowl
- Use alley cropping
13. Subtidal benthic invertebrate conservation
Anaelle J. Lemasson, Laura R. Pettit, Rebecca K. Smith et al.
13. Subtidal benthic invertebrateconservation- 13.1.1 Oil and gas drilling
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.2 General
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.3 Mining, quarrying, and aggregate extraction
- Beneficial
- Cease or prohibit aggregate extraction
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit marine mining
- Extract aggregates from a vessel that is moving rather than static
- Leave mining waste (tailings) in place following cessation of disposal operations
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.1.4 Renewable energy
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Management
- Beneficial
- Cease or prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear
- Likely to be beneficial
- Cease or prohibit all types of fishing
- Cease or prohibit bottom trawling
- Cease or prohibit dredging
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit commercial fishing
- Establish temporary fisheries closures
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.2 Effort and Capacity Reduction
- Unknown effectiveness
- Establish territorial user rights for fisheries
- Install physical barriers to prevent trawling
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.3.3 Reduce Unwanted catch, Discards and Impacts on seabed communities
- Likely to be beneficial
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets
- Modify the design of dredges
- Modify the position of traps
- Use a larger codend mesh size on trawl nets
- Use a midwater/semi-pelagic trawl instead of bottom/ demersal trawl
- Unknown effectiveness
- Fit a funnel (such as a sievenet) or other escape devices on shrimp/prawn trawl nets
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows and one or more soft, rigid or semi-rigid grids or frames to trawl nets
- Fit one or more mesh escape panels/windows to trawl nets and use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames and increase the mesh size of pots and traps
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames on pots and traps
- Fit one or more soft, semi-rigid, or rigid grids or frames to trawl nets and use square mesh instead of a diamond mesh at the codend
- Hand harvest instead of using a dredge
- Increase the mesh size of pots and traps
- Modify the design of traps
- Modify the design/attachments of a shrimp/prawn W-trawl net
- Reduce the number or modify the arrangement of tickler chains/chain mats on trawl nets
- Use a larger mesh size on trammel nets
- Use a pulse trawl instead of a beam trawl
- Use a smaller beam trawl
- Use a square mesh instead of a diamond mesh codend on trawl nets
- Use an otter trawl instead of a beam trawl
- Use an otter trawl instead of a dredge
- Use different bait species in traps
- Use traps instead of fishing nets
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.1 General
- Unknown effectiveness
- Add chemicals or minerals to sediments to remove or neutralise pollutants
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.2 Domestic and urban wastewater
- Likely to be beneficial
- Limit, cease or prohibit the dumping of sewage sludge
- Unknown effectiveness
- Set or improve minimum sewage treatment standards
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.3 Industrial and military effluents
- Unknown effectiveness
- Remove or clean-up oil pollution following a spill
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.4 Aquaculture effluents
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit aquaculture activity
- Leave a fallow period during fish/shellfish farming
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.5 Agricultural and forestry effluents
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.6 Garbage and solid waste
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.7 Excess energy
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.6.8 Other pollution
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restrict the use of tributyltin or other toxic antifouling coatings
- Unknown effectiveness
- Remove and clean-up shoreline waste disposal sites
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and introduce some fishing restrictions (types unspecified)
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all types of fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of sea urchins
- Designate a Marine Protected Area with a zonation system of activity restrictions
- Unknown effectiveness
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and install physical barriers to prevent trawling
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and only allow hook and line fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit all towed (mobile) fishing gear
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit aquaculture activity
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit bottom trawling
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit commercial fishing
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit dredging
- Designate a Marine Protected Area and prohibit the harvesting of conch
- Establish community-based fisheries management
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.1 Natural habitat restoration
- Likely to be beneficial
- Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore oyster reefs
- Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef-forming corals
- Unknown effectiveness
- Install a pump on or above the seabed in docks, ports, harbour, or other coastal areas to increase oxygen concentration
- Refill disused borrow pits
- Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore mussel beds
- Restore biogenic habitats (other methods) - Restore seagrass beds/meadows
- Restore coastal lagoons
- Translocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species - Translocate reef- or bed-forming molluscs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.2 Habitat enhancement
- Beneficial
- Provide artificial shelters
- Unknown effectiveness
- Landscape or artificially enhance the seabed (natural habitats)
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.3 Artificial habitat creation
- Likely to be beneficial
- Create artificial reefs
- Create artificial reefs of different 3-D structure and material used
- Unknown effectiveness
- Locate artificial reefs near aquaculture systems to benefit from nutrient run-offs
- Repurpose obsolete offshore structures to act as artificial reefs
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- 13.9.4 Other habitat restoration and creation interventions
- Unknown effectiveness
- Offset habitat loss from human activity by restoring or creating habitats elsewhere
- Remove and relocate habitat-forming (biogenic) species before onset of impactful activities
- No evidence found (no assessment)
- Likely to be beneficial
- Translocate species - Translocate molluscs
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release crustaceans
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species - Transplant/release molluscs
- Unknown effectiveness
- Cease or prohibit the harvesting of scallops
- Tag species to prevent illegal fishing or harvesting
- Translocate species - Translocate crustaceans
- Translocate species - Translocate worms
- Transplant/release captive-bred or hatchery-reared species in predator exclusion cages
- No evidence found (no assessment)