Terrestrial Mammal Conservation
| , , ,15. Education and awareness raising
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15.1. Encourage community-based participation in land management
1https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2395
2• Two studies evaluated the effects of encouraging community-based participation in management of mammals to reduce mammal persecution. One study was in Pakistan1 and one was in India2.
3COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
4POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY)
5• Abundance (1 study): A study in Pakistan1 found that involving local communities with park management was associated with an increasing population of Himalayan brown bears.
6BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
7OTHER (1 STUDY)
8• Human behaviour change (1 study): A study in Namibia2 found that fewer farmers who engaged in community-based management of land, through membership of a conservancy, removed large carnivores from their land than did non-conservancy members.
Background
When local community members are involved in management of local land resources, they may have a greater interest in ensuring long-term sustainability of that management. One potential outcome of this is a reduction in mammal persecution.
- 1 Nawaz M.A., Swenson J.E. & Zakaria V. (2008) Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the (...)
9A study in 1993–2006 of a primarily mountainous grassland national park in Pakistan1 found that involving local communities with park management was associated with an increasing population of Himalayan brown bears Ursus arctos isabellinus. The known population of bears in the park increased steadily from 19 in 1993 to 43 by 2006. Breeding productivity was, however, low and the increase was reported to be due in part to immigration. The paper attributes the larger population to a reduction in poaching and persecution, linked to increased community engagement in the park since its creation in 1993. This involved recognising local community grazing rights, employing local staff, supporting development projects and enabling local generation of funds from park visitors. Eighty-six bears were monitored. Ten were radio-collared. The remainder were monitored through direct observations of individually recognisable animals.
- 2 Schumann M., Watson L.H. & Schumann B.D. (2008) Attitudes of Namibian commercial farmers toward lar (...)
10A study in 2003–2004 of farmers across a large rangeland area in Namibia2 found that fewer farmers who engaged in community-based management of land through being members of a conservancy removed large carnivores from their land than did non-conservancy members. A lower percentage of conservancy members (57–67 %) removed large carnivores compared to non-conservancy members (81–83 %). Conservancies were legally protected areas, cooperatively managed by a group of land-occupiers with the goal of sharing resources among members. Some conservancy members derived income from trophy hunting of carnivores. A total of 147 farmers were surveyed from across 30,000 km2 of rangeland. They comprised 76 conservancy members (44 mixed farmers, 32 livestock farmers) and 71 non-conservancy members (33 mixed farmers, 38 livestock farmers). Data were collected by face-to-face interviews or by postal questionnaires in 2003–2004.
15.2. Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
11https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2422
12• Two studies evaluated the effects of using campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats. One study was in the USA1 and one was in Lao People’s Democratic Republic2.
13COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
14POPULATION RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
15BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
16OTHER (2 STUDIES)
17• Human behaviour change (2 studies): A randomized, replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in the USA1 found that displaying education signs did not reduce the percentage of garbage containers that were accessible to black bears. A controlled, before-and-after study in Lao People’s Democratic Republic2 found that a social marketing campaign promoting a telephone hotline increased reporting of illegal hunting.
Background
Mammals face a range of threats from humans. These may include exploitation through hunting or persecution if the mammal is perceived as a threat or a nuisance. In some cases, mammals are protected by regulations and laws but these may be difficult to enforce. Some infringements may be difficult to detect whilst, in other cases, people may be unaware of their responsibilities under such rules. Campaigns may be designed to increase compliance with laws, to encourage reporting of infringements, such as illegal hunting, or to reduce behaviours that can be a threat to mammals, such as consumption of products derived from wild mammals. These may use a variety of media and ranging from broadcasting and social media through to word of mouth.
- 3 Baruch-Mordo S., Breck S.W., Wilson K.R. & Broderick J. (2011) The carrot or the stick? Evaluation (...)
18A randomized, replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in 2007 in a residential area in Colorado, USA3 found that displaying education signs about the danger of garbage to black bears Ursus americanus did not reduce the percentage of garbage containers that were not wildlife-resistant or wildlife-proof. The overall proportion of households using garbage containers that were not wildlife-resistant or wildlife-proof declined during the study. However, where signage was used, the trend in households not using wildlife-resistant garbage containers (after: 0–31 %; before: 11–52 %) did not differ from where signage was not used (after: 7–27 %; before: 9–45 %). Dumpsters were surveyed at 68 communal housing complexes. Thirty-four were randomly selected for placement of signs on dumpsters, warning of dangers of unsecured garbage to bears. Similarly, 42 construction sites were surveyed, with signage used at 22 of these. Dumpsters were surveyed in July–September 2007, for three weeks before and three weeks after installing signage. Violations were use of unsecured containers, unsecure dumpster storage outside kerbside collection times, garbage outside dumpsters and, on building sites, food waste in open dumpsters.
- 4 Saypanya S., Hansel T., Johnson A., Bianchessi A. & Sadowsky B. (2013) Effectiveness of a social ma (...)
19A controlled, before-and-after study in 2009–2010 in 57 villages in and around a protected area in Lao People’s Democratic Republic4 found that a social marketing campaign to promote a newly created telephone hotline increased reporting of illegal hunting. Villagers exposed to the social marketing campaign were significantly more likely to report illegal hunting after the campaign. The reporting rate of the villages not exposed to the campaign did not change significantly (data not reported). In 2009, a telephone hotline was set up for villagers to report illegal hunting. In 36 villages, a social marketing campaign was used to promote the hotline. Twenty-one similar villages did not receive the campaign. Surveys of both groups were conducted before and after the social marketing campaign took place.
15.3. Provide education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
20https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2423
21• Two studies evaluated the effects of providing education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats. One study was in South Africa1 and one was in the USA2.
22COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
23POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY)
24• Abundance (1 study): A before-and-after study in South Africa1 found that educating ranchers on ways of reducing livestock losses, along with stricter hunting policies, increased leopard density.
25• Survival (1 study): A before-and-after study in South Africa1 found that educating ranchers on ways of reducing livestock losses, along with stricter hunting policies, reduced leopard mortalities.
26BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
27OTHER (1 STUDY)
28• Human behaviour change (1 study): A replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in the USA2 found that visiting households to educate about the danger of garbage to black bears did not increase use of wildlife-resistant dumpsters.
Background
Where human behaviour is central to the threat to a species, an education programme may be devised to address this. Such programmes may tackle a wide range of threats to mammals and be aimed to difference audiences, such as local residents, farmers or other businesses. The effects of programmes may be measured in terms of the response of target species or in terms of changes in human behaviour that directly impact the magnitude of the threat. This intervention covers situations where awareness of ways of reducing threats to mammals is focussed on specific narrow target groups, largely through one-to-one interactions. For more widely-targeted programmes, see Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats.
- 5 Balme G.A., Slotow R. & Hunter L.T.B. (2009) Impact of conservation interventions on the dynamics a (...)
29A before-and-after study in 2002–2009 in a temperate broadleaf forest and grassland site in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa5 found that educating ranchers on methods for reducing livestock losses, along with implementing stricter hunting policies, increased leopard Panthera pardus density and reduced leopard mortalities. Four years after both livestock husbandry workshops and hunting policy changes were implemented, there were 11.2 leopards/100 km2, compared to 7.1/100km2 in the first year of implementation. Nine leopards were killed during the first three years after livestock husbandry workshops and hunting policy changes were implemented compared to 23 over the previous two years. In January–July 2005, workshops were held to teach improved husbandry techniques to local landowners. Before January 2005 leopards could be killed legally if they had killed livestock. After January 2005 permits were only granted if the same leopard was confirmed (using inspections and camera traps) to have killed three or more livestock within two months and if the landowner could provide evidence that they were trying to reduce attacks on livestock. Thirty-five leopards were radio-collared and monitored between April 2002 and December 2007. Camera traps were used in January–March 2005, January–March 2007, and March– May 2009 to estimate changes in the leopard population size.
- 6 Baruch-Mordo S., Breck S.W., Wilson K.R. & Broderick J. (2011) The carrot or the stick? Evaluation (...)
30A replicated, controlled, before-and-after study in 2008 of a residential area in Colorado, USA6 found that visiting properties to educate about the danger of garbage to black bears Ursus americanus did not increase use of wildlife-resistant dumpsters. Where educational visits were carried out, the trend in availability of garbage to wildlife (before visits: 13–15 % of households; after visits: 16–26 %) did not differ from those in neighbourhoods that were not visited (before visits: 9–15 % of households; after: 16–17 %). Similarly, there was no difference in use of bear-resistant containers between neighbourhoods that were visited (before visits: 11–17 % of households; after: 16–23 %) or not visited (before visits: 14–19 % of households; after: 17–18 %). In two neighbourhoods, 91 % and 87 % of residences were visited and residents were spoken to or had educational material delivered. Two further neighbourhoods, did not receiving any visits. Household garbage disposal facilities were surveyed in July–September 2008, before and after visits. Garbage was regarded as accessible if placed outside containers, or in non-bear-resistant containers.
15.4. Provide science-based films, radio programmes, or books about mammals to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
31https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2424
32• We found no studies that evaluated the effects on mammals of providing science-based films, radio programmes, or books about mammals to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats.
‘We found no studies’ means that we have not yet found any studies that have directly evaluated this intervention during our systematic journal and report searches. Therefore, we have no evidence to indicate whether or not the intervention has any desirable or harmful effects.
Background
There are different types of media that can be used to inform people and raise their awareness about threats to mammals and their conservation. Environmental education campaigns frequently use film, sound or print media to present either factual information or fictional stories that have parallels to environmental issues. It can be difficult to assess the impact of such initiatives, as it is harder to assess people’s subsequent behaviours than it is to measure their stated attitudes towards mammals after exposure to media.
15.5. Train and support local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals
33https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2425
34• One study evaluated the effects of training and supporting local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals. This study was in Kenya1.
35COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
36POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY)
37• Survival (1 study): A replicated, before-and-after study in Kenya1 found that employing local tribesmen to dissuade pastoralists from killing lions and to assist with livestock protection measures, alongside compensating for livestock killed by lions, reduced lion killings by pastoralists.
38BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
Background
Carnivores may be killed by farmers where they feel that their livestock are threatened. National laws or policies protecting wild mammals may be difficult to enforce at a local level. Local staff, from among the same communities as the farmers, may be able to gain more respect and to work more closely with farmers to find ways to reduce losses to predators without carrying out lethal control.
- 7 Hazzah L., Dolrenry S., Naughton L., Edwards C.T.T., Mwebi O., Kearney F. & Frank L. (2014) Efficac (...)
39A replicated, before-and-after study in 2003–2011 in savanna grassland in four ranches in southern Kenya7 found that employing local tribesmen to dissuade pastoralists from killing lions Panthera leo and to assist with livestock protection measures, alongside compensating for livestock killed by lions, reduced lion killings by pastoralists. The two schemes occurred at the same time at three group ranches, so their individual effects could not be separated. Compensation for livestock losses was estimated to reduce lion killing by 87–91 % whilst additionally employing lion guardians reduced killings by 99 %. The four ranches comprised a 3,500-km2 study area. Compensation for verified livestock losses to lions was initiated at three of the group ranches between 2003 and 2008. Respected tribesmen, ‘lion guardians’, were employed to dissuade pastoralists from killing lions and to assist with livestock protection measures, such as reinforcing bomas. The scheme commenced at the four sites between 2007 and 2010. Lion mortality data, from 2003 to 2011, were collated primarily from community informants and direct interviews with lion hunters.
15.6. Publish data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts
40https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/2426
41• One study evaluated the effects on poaching incidents of publishing data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts. This study was in Ghana1.
42COMMUNITY RESPONSE (0 STUDIES)
43POPULATION RESPONSE (1 STUDY)
44• Survival (1 study): A replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in Ghana1 found that when data were publishing on staff performance, poaching incidents decreased on these sites and on sites from which performance data were not published.
45BEHAVIOUR (0 STUDIES)
46OTHER (1 STUDY)
47• Human behaviour change (1 study): A replicated, before-and-after, site comparison in Ghana1 found that publishing data on staff performance lead to an increase in anti-poaching patrols.
Background
Where poaching is a threat to mammals, patrols by rangers may be carried out as a deterrent and to apprehend poachers. Ranger teams may be operating in isolated sites and motivation may be negatively impacted. Publishing metrics on team performances may encourage greater effort with patrolling and pride in ranger team activities and achievements.
- 8 Jachmann H. (2008) Monitoring law-enforcement performance in nine protected areas in Ghana. Biologi (...)
48A replicated, before-and-after, site comparison study in 2004–2006 within savanna and forest in seven protected areas and two national parks in Ghana8 found that publishing data on staff performance lead to more anti-poaching patrols and that detected of poaching incidents decreased on savanna sites but not on forest sites. Staff performance was 59 % higher after reporting (11.8 effective patrol days/staff/month) than before (7.4 effective patrol days/staff/month). In two parks where performance indicators were not reported, performance increased by 11 % over this period (after: 10.9; before: 9.8 effective patrol days/ staff/month). In four savanna sites, the average number of detected offences related to poaching (including of mammals) was 72 % lower after reporting (21 offences/patrol staff-day) than before (74 offences/ patrol staff-day). In two forest sites, the average number of offences detected after reporting (179/patrol staff-day) was not significantly different to the number before (214 offences/patrol staff-day). In two parks where performance indicators were not reported, the average number of offences detected after reporting (116 offences/patrol staff-day) was not significantly different to the number before (174 offences/ patrol staff-day). Publishing evaluation reports created an awareness of poor performance and generated performance-related competition between sites. Monitoring of patrol effort and illegal activity encounters commenced from mid-2004. Metrics were published at the end of 2005 and monitoring continued through 2006.
Notes
1 Nawaz M.A., Swenson J.E. & Zakaria V. (2008) Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the Himalayan brown bears, in Pakistan’s Deosai National Park. Biological Conservation, 141, 2230–2241.
2 Schumann M., Watson L.H. & Schumann B.D. (2008) Attitudes of Namibian commercial farmers toward large carnivores: The influence of conservancy membership. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 38, 123–132.
3 Baruch-Mordo S., Breck S.W., Wilson K.R. & Broderick J. (2011) The carrot or the stick? Evaluation of education and enforcement as management tools for human-wildlife conflicts. PLoS ONE, 6, e15681.
4 Saypanya S., Hansel T., Johnson A., Bianchessi A. & Sadowsky B. (2013) Effectiveness of a social marketing strategy, coupled with law enforcement, to conserve tigers and their prey in Nam Et Phou Louey National Protected Area, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Conservation Evidence, 10, 57–66.
5 Balme G.A., Slotow R. & Hunter L.T.B. (2009) Impact of conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a persecuted leopard (Panthera pardus) population. Biological Conservation, 142, 2681–2690.
6 Baruch-Mordo S., Breck S.W., Wilson K.R. & Broderick J. (2011) The carrot or the stick? Evaluation of education and enforcement as management tools for human-wildlife conflicts. PLoS ONE, 6, e15681.
7 Hazzah L., Dolrenry S., Naughton L., Edwards C.T.T., Mwebi O., Kearney F. & Frank L. (2014) Efficacy of two lion conservation programs in Maasailand, Kenya. Conservation Biology, 28, 851–860.
8 Jachmann H. (2008) Monitoring law-enforcement performance in nine protected areas in Ghana. Biological Conservation, 141, 89–99.
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