Table des matières
1. About this book
- The Conservation Evidence project
- The purpose of Conservation Evidence synopses
- Who this synopsis is for
- Background
- Scope of the Terrestrial Mammal Conservation synopsis
- Review subject
- Advisory board
- Creating the list of interventions
- Methods
- Literature searches
- a) Global evidence
- b) Languages included
- c) Journals searched
- i) From Conservation Evidence discipline-wide literature database
- ii) Update searches
- iii) New searches
- d) Reports from specialist websites searched
- i) From Conservation Evidence discipline-wide literature database
- ii) Update searches
- e) Other literature searches
- f) Supplementary literature identified by advisory board or relevant stakeholders
- g) Search record database
- Publication screening and inclusion criteria
- a) Screening
- b) Inclusion criteria
- c) Relevant subject
- d) Relevant types of intervention
- e) Relevant types of comparator
- f) Relevant types of outcome
- g) Relevant types of study design
- Study quality assessment & critical appraisal
- Data extraction
- Evidence synthesis
- a) Summary protocol
- For example:
- b) Terminology used to describe the evidence
- c) Dealing with multiple interventions within a publication
- d) Dealing with multiple publications reporting the same results
- e) Taxonomy
- f) Key messages
- g) Background information
- Dissemination/communication of evidence synthesis
- How you can help to change conservation practice
2. Threat: Residential and commercial development
- 2.1. Protect mammals close to development areas (e.g. by fencing)
- 2.2. Keep cats indoors or in outside runs to reduce predation of wild mammals
- 2.3. Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation by domestic animals
- 2.4. Keep dogs indoors or in outside enclosures to reduce threats to wild mammals
- 2.5. Keep domestic cats and dogs well-fed to reduce predation of wild mammals
- 2.6. Translocate problem mammals away from residential areas (e.g. habituated bears) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 2.7. Issue enforcement notices to deter use of non-bear-proof garbage dumpsters to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 2.8. Prevent mammals accessing potential wildlife food sources or denning sites to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict
- 2.9. Provide diversionary feeding for mammals to reduce nuisance behaviour and human-wildlife conflict
- 2.10. Scare or otherwise deter mammals from human-occupied areas to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 2.11. Retain wildlife corridors in residential areas
- 2.12. Install underpasses beneath ski runs
- 2.13. Provide woody debris in ski run area
3. Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture
- All farming systems
- 3.1. Establish wild flower areas on farmland
- 3.2. Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields
- 3.3. Provide or retain set-aside areas on farmland
- 3.4. Maintain/restore/create habitat connectivity on farmland
- 3.5. Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife on farmland
- 3.6. Plant new or maintain existing hedgerows on farmland
- 3.7. Plant trees on farmland
- 3.8. Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures
- 3.9. Provide refuges during crop harvesting or mowing
- 3.10. Use repellent on slug pellets to reduce non-target poisoning
- 3.11. Restrict use of rodent poisons on farmland with high secondary poisoning risk
- Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
- 3.12. Increase crop diversity for mammals
- 3.13. Create beetle banks on farmland
- 3.14. Plant crops to provide supplementary food for mammals
- 3.15. Change mowing regime (e.g. timing, frequency, height)
- 3.16. Leave areas of uncut ryegrass in silage field
- 3.17. Leave cut vegetation in field to provide cover
- 3.18. Establish long-term cover on erodible cropland
- Livestock Farming & Ranching
- 3.19. Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)
- 3.20. Reduce intensity of grazing by domestic livestock
- 3.21. Use livestock fences that are permeable to wildlife
- 3.22. Install mammal crossing points along fences on farmland
- 3.23. Use traditional breeds of livestock
- 3.24. Change type of livestock
- Reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.25. Relocate local pastoralist communities to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.26. Pay farmers to compensate for losses due to predators/wild herbivores to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.27. Install non-electric fencing to exclude predators or herbivores and reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.28. Install electric fencing to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.29. Exclude wild mammals using ditches, moats, walls or other barricades to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.30. Use flags to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.31. Use visual deterrents (e.g. scarecrows) to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.32. Use pheromones to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.33. Use taste-aversion to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to deter human-wildlife conflict
- 3.34. Dispose of livestock carcasses to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.35. Use guardian animals (e.g. dogs, llamas, donkeys) bonded to livestock to deter predators to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.36. Use loud noises to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.37. Translocate predators away from livestock to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.38. Provide diversionary feeding to reduce predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.39. Keep livestock in enclosures to reduce predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.40. Install electric fencing to protect crops from mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.41. Install metal grids at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.42. Install automatically closing gates at field entrances to prevent mammals entering to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.43. Use tree nets to deter wild mammals from fruit crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.44. Deter predation of livestock by mammals by having people close by to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.45. Deter predation of livestock by herding livestock using adults instead of children to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.46. Deter predation of livestock by using shock/ electronic dog-training collars to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.47. Fit livestock with protective collars to reduce risk of predation by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.48. Use lights and sound to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.49. Use scent to deter predation of livestock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.50. Use watchmen to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.51. Use mobile phone communications to warn farmers of problematic mammals (e.g. elephants)
- 3.52. Use fencing/netting to reduce predation of fish stock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.53. Establish deviation ponds in fish farms to reduce predation of fish stock by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.54. Use lights and sound to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.55. Provide diversionary feeding to reduce crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.56. Use scarecrows to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.57. Use loud noises to deter crop damage (e.g. banger sticks, drums, tins, iron sheets) by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.58. Use noise aversive conditioning to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.59. Use ultrasonic noises to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.60. Use drones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.61. Translocate crop raiders away from crops (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.62. Use negative stimuli to deter consumption of livestock feed by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.63. Play predator calls to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.64. Use target species distress calls or signals to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.65. Use bees to deter crop damage by mammals (e.g. elephants) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.66. Grow unattractive crop in buffer zone around crops (e.g. chili peppers) to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.67. Use chili to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.68. Use light/lasers to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.69. Use fire to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.70. Use pheromones to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.71. Use predator scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.72. Use target species scent to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.73. Use ‘shock collars’ to deter crop damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.74. Use repellents that taste bad (‘contact repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.75. Use repellents that smell bad (‘area repellents’) to deter crop or property damage by mammals to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.76. Use dogs to guard crops to reduce human-wildlife conflict
- 3.77. Drive wild animals away using domestic animals of the same species to reduce human-wildlife conflict
5. Threat: Transportation and service corridors
- Roads & Railroads
- 5.1. Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under roads
- 5.2. Install tunnels/culverts/underpass under railways
- 5.3. Modify culverts to make them more accessible to mammals
- 5.4. Install ledges in culverts under roads/railways
- 5.5. Dig trenches around culverts under roads/railways
- 5.6. Install fences around existing culverts or underpasses under roads/railways
- 5.7. Install overpasses over roads/railways
- 5.8. Install pole crossings for gliders/flying squirrels
- 5.9. Install rope bridges between canopies
- 5.10. Install one-way gates or other structures to allow wildlife to leave roadways
- 5.11. Install barrier fencing along roads
- 5.12. Install barrier fencing and underpasses along roads
- 5.13. Install barrier fencing along railways
- 5.14. Install wildlife warning reflectors along roads
- 5.15. Install acoustic wildlife warnings along roads
- 5.16. Install wildlife crosswalks
- 5.17. Install wildlife exclusion grates/cattle grids
- 5.18. Reduce legal speed limit
- 5.19. Install traffic calming structures to reduce speeds
- 5.20. Modify vegetation along roads to reduce collisions with mammals by enhancing visibility for drivers
- 5.21. Modify the roadside environment to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness of road verges to mammals
- 5.22. Remove roadkill regularly to reduce kill rate of predators/scavengers
- 5.23. Modify vegetation along railways to reduce collisions by reducing attractiveness to mammals
- 5.24. Retain/maintain road verges as small mammal habitat
- 5.25. Fit vehicles with ultrasonic warning devices
- 5.26. Install signage to warn motorists about wildlife presence
- 5.27. Use road lighting to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals
- 5.28. Use chemical repellents along roads or railways
- 5.29. Use alternative de-icers on roads
- 5.30. Provide food/salt lick to divert mammals from roads or railways
- 5.31. Use reflective collars or paint on mammals to reduce collisions with road vehicles
- 5.32. Use wildlife decoy to reduce vehicle collisions with mammals
- 5.33. Close roads in defined seasons
- Utility & Service Lines
- 5.34. Install crossings over/under pipelines
- Shipping Lanes
- 5.35. Install overpasses over waterways
- 5.36. Install barrier fencing along waterways
- 5.37. Provide mammals with escape routes from canals
6. Threat: Biological resource use
- Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals
- 6.1. Prohibit or restrict hunting of a species
- 6.2. Ban private ownership of hunted mammals
- 6.3. Site management for target mammal species carried out by field sport practitioners
- 6.4. Set hunting quotas based on target species population trends
- 6.5. Prohibit or restrict hunting of particular sex/breeding status/age animals
- 6.6. Incentivise species protection through licensed trophy hunting
- 6.7. Use selective trapping methods in hunting activities
- 6.8. Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting impacts
- 6.9. Provide/increase anti-poaching patrols
- 6.10. Make introduction of non-native mammals for sporting purposes illegal
- 6.11. Commercially breed for the mammal production trade
- 6.12. Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods
- 6.13. Promote mammal-related ecotourism
- 6.14. Ban exports of hunting trophies
- Logging & Wood Harvesting
- 6.15. Use selective harvesting instead of clearcutting
- 6.16. Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting
- 6.17. Retain undisturbed patches during thinning operations
- 6.18. Clear or open patches in forests
- 6.19. Retain dead trees after uprooting
- 6.20. Use thinning of forest instead of clearcutting
- 6.21. Remove competing vegetation to allow tree establishment in clearcut areas
- 6.22. Retain understorey vegetation within plantations
- 6.23. Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests
- 6.24. Leave coarse woody debris in forests
- 6.25. Gather coarse woody debris into piles after felling
- 6.26. Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest
- 6.27. Retain wildlife corridors in logged areas
- 6.28. Thin trees within forest
- 6.29. Apply fertilizer to trees
- 6.30. Fell trees in groups, leaving surrounding forest unharvested
- 6.31. Coppice trees
- 6.32. Allow forest to regenerate naturally following logging
- 6.33. Harvest timber outside mammal reproduction period
- 6.34. Control firewood collection in remnant native forest and woodland
- 6.35. Plant trees following clearfelling
- 6.36. Use tree tubes/small fences/cages to protect individual trees
- 6.37. Provide supplementary feed to reduce tree damage
7. Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance
- 7.1. Use signs or access restrictions to reduce disturbance to mammals
- 7.2. Set minimum distances for approaching mammals
- 7.3. Set maximum number of people/vehicles approaching mammals
- 7.4. Exclude or limit number of visitors to reserves or protected areas
- 7.5. Provide paths to limit extent of disturbance to mammals
- 7.6. Use voluntary agreements with locals to reduce disturbance
- 7.7. Habituate mammals to visitors
- 7.8. Translocate mammals that have habituated to humans (e.g. bears)
- 7.9. Treat mammals to reduce conflict caused by disease transmission to humans
- 7.10. Use conditioned taste aversion to reduce human-wildlife conflict in non-residential sites
- 7.11 Use non-lethal methods to deter carnivores from attacking humans
8. Threat: Natural system modifications
- 8.1. Use prescribed burning
- 8.2. Burn at specific time of year
- 8.3. Provide shelter structures after fire
- 8.4. Thin trees to reduce wildfire risk
- 8.5. Remove burnt trees and branches after wildfire
- 8.6. Remove mid-storey vegetation in forest
- 8.7. Remove understorey vegetation in forest
- 8.8. Remove trees and shrubs to recreate open areas of land
- 8.9. Provide artificial waterholes in dry season
- 8.10. Use fencing to protect water sources for use by wild mammals
- 8.11. Provide supplementary food after fire
9. Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species
- 9.1. Use fencing to exclude grazers or other problematic species
- 9.2. Use fencing to exclude predators or other problematic species
- Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species/Diseases
- 9.3. Remove/control non-native amphibians (e.g. cane toads)
- 9.4. Remove/control non-native invertebrates
- 9.5. Remove/control non-native mammals
- 9.6. Remove/control non-native mammals within a fenced area
- 9.7. Remove/control non-native plants
- 9.8. Control non-native/problematic plants to restore habitat
- 9.9. Reintroduce top predators to suppress and reduce the impacts of smaller non-native predator and prey species
- 9.10. Control non-native prey species to reduce populations and impacts of non-native predators
- 9.11. Provide artificial refuges for prey to evade/escape non-native predators
- 9.12. Remove/control non-native species that could interbreed with native species
- 9.13. Modify traps used in the control/eradication of non-native species to avoid injury of non-target mammal
- 9.14. Use conditioned taste aversion to prevent nontarget species from entering traps
- 9.15. Use reward removal to prevent non-target species from entering traps
- Problematic Native Species/Diseases
- 9.16. Remove or control predators
- 9.17. Sterilize predators
- 9.18. Remove or control competitors
- 9.19. Provide diversionary feeding for predators
- 9.20. Sterilise non-native domestic or feral species (e.g. cats and dogs)
- 9.21. Train mammals to avoid problematic species
- 9.22. Treat disease in wild mammals
- 9.23. Use vaccination programme
- 9.24. Eliminate highly virulent diseases early in an epidemic by culling all individuals (healthy and infected) in a defined area
- 9.25. Cull disease-infected animals
- 9.26. Use drugs to treat parasites
- 9.27. Establish populations isolated from disease
- 9.28. Control ticks/fleas/lice in wild mammal populations
11. Threat: Climate change and severe weather
- 11.1. Retain/provide migration corridors
- 11.2. Protect habitat along elevational gradients
- 11.3. Translocate animals from source populations subject to similar climatic conditions
- 11.4. Provide dams/water holes during drought
- 11.5. Apply water to vegetation to increase food availability during drought
- 11.6. Remove flood water
13. Habitat restoration and creation
- 13.1. Remove topsoil that has had fertilizer added to mimic low nutrient soil
- 13.2. Manage vegetation using livestock grazing
- 13.3. Manage vegetation using grazing by wild herbivores
- 13.4. Replant vegetation
- 13.5. Remove vegetation by hand/machine
- 13.6. Remove vegetation using herbicides
- 13.7. Restore or create grassland
- 13.8. Restore or create savannas
- 13.9. Restore or create shrubland
- 13.10. Restore or create forest
- 13.11. Restore or create wetlands
- 13.12. Manage wetland water levels for mammal species
- 13.13. Create or maintain corridors between habitat patches
- 13.14. Apply fertilizer to vegetation to increase food availability
- 13.15. Provide artificial refuges/breeding sites
- 13.16. Provide artificial dens or nest boxes on trees
- 13.17. Provide more small artificial breeding sites rather than fewer large sites
14. Species management
- 14.1. Cease/reduce payments to cull mammals
- 14.2. Temporarily hold females and offspring in fenced area to increase survival of young
- 14.3. Rehabilitate injured, sick or weak mammals
- 14.4. Hand-rear orphaned or abandoned young in captivity
- 14.5. Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with wild foster parents
- 14.6. Place orphaned or abandoned wild young with captive foster parents
- 14.7. Provide supplementary food to increase reproduction/survival
- 14.8. Provide supplementary water to increase reproduction/survival
- 14.9. Graze herbivores on pasture, instead of sustaining with artificial foods
- Translocate Mammals
- 14.10. Translocate to re-establish or boost populations in native range
- 14.11. Translocate mammals to reduce overpopulation
- 14.12. Translocate predators for ecosystem restoration
- 14.13. Use holding pens at release site prior to release of translocated mammals
- 14.14. Hold translocated mammals in captivity before release
- 14.15. Use tranquilizers to reduce stress during translocation
- 14.16. Airborne translocation of mammals using parachutes
- 14.17. Release translocated mammals into fenced areas
- 14.18. Provide supplementary food during/after release of translocated mammals
- Captive-breeding
- 14.19. Breed mammals in captivity
- 14.20. Place captive young with captive foster parents
- 14.21. Use artificial insemination
- 14.22. Clone rare species
- 14.23. Preserve genetic material for use in future captive breeding programs
- Release captive-bred mammals
- 14.24. Release captive-bred individuals to re-establish or boost populations in native range
- 14.25. Captive rear in large enclosures prior to release
- 14.26. Use holding pens at release site prior to release of captive-bred mammals
- 14.27. Provide live natural prey to captive mammals to foster hunting behaviour before release
- 14.28. Train captive-bred mammals to avoid predators
- 14.29. Release captive-bred mammals into fenced areas
- 14.30. Provide supplementary food during/after release of captive-bred mammals
- Release captive-bred/translocated mammals
- 14.31. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in areas with invasive/problematic species eradication/control
- 14.32. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to islands without invasive predators
- 14.33. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in family/social groups
- 14.34. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals in larger unrelated groups
- 14.35. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals into area with artificial refuges/breeding sites
- 14.36. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals at a specific time (e.g. season, day/night)
- 14.37. Release translocated/captive-bred mammals to areas outside historical range
15. Education and awareness raising
- 15.1. Encourage community-based participation in land management
- 15.2. Use campaigns and public information to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
- 15.3. Provide education programmes to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
- 15.4. Provide science-based films, radio programmes, or books about mammals to improve behaviour towards mammals and reduce threats
- 15.5. Train and support local staff to help reduce persecution of mammals
- 15.6. Publish data on ranger performance to motivate increased anti-poacher efforts
