Setting – previous investigations – cultural context2

1The site of Dolno Dryanovo-Gradishteto is situated in the westernmost part of the Rhodope Mountains, ca 7‑8 km away from the Mesta River valley, in a mountainous area with an altitude reaching 1000‑1200 m. The Mesta River valley has been a natural axis of communication connecting the Northern Aegean, Upper Thrace and Central Balkans through the ages, and thus was very important for the interrelations between the people inhabiting these areas (fig. 1).

2Systematic archaeological investigations in the region started as late as the 1970s. A number of sites dating back to the Chalcolithic were found during the archaeological surveys3. Most of them are clustered on the left bank of the Mesta River, in the first mountain zone of the Dabrash hills and the lower course of the Kanina River: Kovachevitsa, Kochan, Ognyanovo, Osina and Pletena4. This concentration of sites could be explained by the presence of hot mineral springs in this area. The only site known so far on the right bank of the Mesta River is Ilinden-Klisura situated in the foothills of the Slavyanka hills. The sites are located on relatively small and naturally protected rocky hills or river terraces with access to water sources5. The preference for naturally protected locations is typical of the settlement pattern in the entire territory of the Krivodol-Sălcuţa-Bubanj Hum (hereafter KSB) cultural complex in the later part of the Chalcolithic6. More precise dating of the materials collected during the surveys is possible only for two of the sites: Kovachevitsa-Livadite dates back to the Early Chalcolithic7, and Ilinden-Klisura to the Final Chalcolithic8. Limited scale excavations were carried at only two sites – Kochan-Zaimova Chuka9 and Dolno Dryanovo-Gradishteto10. When speaking about the Chalcolithic of the region, it is also worth mentioning that a Mezökerésztes type of copper axe and two ceramic vessels were discovered during the construction of the road between Kochan and Vaklinovo11.

The site and the excavations in the Gradishteto locality

3The archaeological excavations in the Gradishteto locality were carried out during spring 200812. The site is situated ca 2 km to the east of the village of Dolno Dryanovo, Garmen municipality, on a chain of hills approximately 700 m long, oriented NNW-SSE. On top of an elevated area totalling ca 2 ha, there are three separate rocky hills with a maximum altitude of 879.80 m above sea level. The site is naturally protected and is accessible only from northwest, the other sides being surrounded by an impressive canyon. The slopes are very steep and in some places the cliffs are almost vertical, forming a 70‑80 m deep precipice at the east-northeast side. On the ridge of the elevation and at several spots, mainly on the southern slope, there are a number of relatively small naturally levelled terraces, enclosed by impressive denuded cliffs (fig. 2).

4A permanent running brook, a right tributary of the Bistritsa River, flows in the foothills of the steepest northeastern slope – the Momin Vir locality. The slopes of the elevation are covered with oak and pine forest, and single trees and bushes grow on the ridge and the higher parts. The soil is brown forest soil. On the southwestern slope lies a relatively easy forest track reaching the Bistritsa River valley that is deeply cut into the terrain.

5The archaeological excavations were focused on the northwestern part of the site. Seven trenches and two test ditches with a total area of 65 m² were made. The size, the orientation and the shape of the trenches followed to a great extent the configuration of the natural rocks. Two of the trenches yielded artifacts and structures dated exclusively to the Late Iron Age (4^th and early 3^rd century BC)13. The trial trenches located in the northwestern foothills revealed no cultural layers. The natural rock was reached at a depth of 0.10‑0.25 m, immediately under the surface and the layer of brown forest soil. Late Chalcolithic sherds were found in the soil removed from fissures in the rock at the upper part of the southern slope and on the ridge of the hill, ca 4 m away from its highest point (trenches 1 and 5), together with LIA pottery.

The Final Chalcolithic materials and their context. Stratigraphy

6A Final Chalcolithic undisturbed layer was documented in three of the trenches situated on the southwestern slope: trenches 2, 4 and 6 (fig. 3). They were located in natural fissures in the rock (niches and shelters) whose width varies from 1 to 3.5 m.

7Despite the differences in details, trenches 4 and 6 provided analogous sequences (fig. 4: 2). The ca 0.15‑0.20 m thick surface layer was situated above a layer of brown, quite homogenous friable soil, whose thickness varied from 0.50 to 0.80 m. Chalcolithic and LIA sherds were found in this layer; the majority of the sherds had worn, badly preserved surfaces and were probably re-deposited. The next layer was situated immediately on top of the natural rock. It consisted of a compact, relatively fine, homogenous grey-black to black sandy-clayey soil with inclusions of small lumps of burnt clay and a small amount of charcoal. This layer, whose thickness varied from 0.20 to 0.50 m, yielded Late Chalcolithic materials only. Concentrations of potsherds, stones of various sizes and pieces of burnt debris covering parts of the excavated area, were unearthed in the undisturbed areas. The pottery was highly fragmented and only a few pottery shapes were restored. However, the sherds discovered in the black layer had nicely preserved surfaces, indicating that the rock fissures and niches had not been filled in by re-deposited materials. The amount of animal bones was very low. A thin layer comprising a high concentration of small pieces of eroded rock and materials dating back to the Final Chalcolithic was documented in the lowest part of the layer already described. No other well defined levels or thin layers indicating separate stages of occupation were documented within the Final Chalcolithic layer.

8Evidence about a slightly different situation is provided by the northern section of trench 2. Two different layers probably indicating two consecutive stages of filling in the rock fissure are clearly visible there (fig. 4: 1).

9Below are the details of the three trenches:

Trench 2

10The trench was situated on the southwestern slope of the hill, ca 10 m from its ridge. In this spot there was a relatively small natural rocky “platform” located among a group of oblique large pieces of rock. Immediately to the southwest of this “platform”, the slope was rather steep; at some spots the eroded rocks were almost vertical and the terrain was difficult to cross (fig. 5: 1). After removing the soil covering the natural rocks, a fissure in the rocks appeared between the flat stone blocks. The fissure had an almost regular trapezoidal form elongated from northeast to southwest; it was 3‑3.20 m long, 1 m wide at its northeastern end, and 2.5 m wide at its southwestern end. A concentration of pieces of burnt wall debris, small stones and a few fragments of a hearth floor were unearthed at a depth of to 0.50‑0.70 m measured from the levelled surface of the rock (fig. 4: 1; 7.30‑7.50 m R214). The feature was lying in a layer of dark brown soil mixed with a great amount of highly fragmented burnt wall plaster. A higher concentration of larger pieces of burnt wall plaster was discovered along the vertical walls of the fissure15. The layer under this concentration and in the south-southeastern part of the rock fissure consisted of black soil with inclusions of small pieces of burnt wall plaster, charcoal and a large amount of sherds, predominantly fine ware. The same layer was documented down to the natural rock, i.e. the fissure bottom.

Trench 4

11The trench was situated ca 40 m to the south of trench 2 and ca 25 m down the slope of the hill. The excavated area was enclosed from the northwest, northeast and southeast by massive rocks rising up and forming a natural niche with a maximum width of ca 4 m whose entrance faces the southeast. In the northwestern part of the trench, in a space with a maximum width of 1.50 m enclosed by massive rocks, the Late Chalcolithic layer was reached at a depth of 0.70‑0.80 m from the modern surface (fig. 5: 2). In the rest of the trench, the natural rock was reached immediately after removing the surface soil and the layer of brown forest soil (fig. 4: 2).

Trench 6

12The trench was situated 8 m to the southeast of trench 4. It measured 3 x 1 m and was situated next to a rock confining from the southeast a natural niche. The niche had a maximum width of 5.5‑6 m, and its entrance faced the southwest, whereas the other sides were surrounded by almost vertical pieces of rock of various heights and configurations. The Late Chalcolithic layer in this trench was reached at a smaller depth (0.30‑0.40 m from the surface), which was probably due to the fact that the terrain was less steep in this sector and the soil had accumulated in a different way.

13There is no clear evidence about the mechanism of formation of the Final Chalcolithic layer. Furthermore, the available information does not allow a reliable reconstruction of the ancient landscape. Beside the fact that these are limited scale excavations, it has to be pointed out that all over the ridge of the hill, and on the southwestern slope especially, there are large pieces of rock, which must have eroded over a long period of time. The fact that the slope is quite steep and the modern soil cover is irregular, as well as the dense vegetation, makes the task especially difficult. The available information does not provide grounds to suggest that the prehistoric inhabitants had performed activities aimed at levelling or cutting the rocky surface16.

14The interpretation of the situation in which the Chalcolithic materials were found is quite problematic for the moment. Since the excavations were limited in scale, the available data was not sufficient for drawing reliable conclusions. Apparently, the limited area between the rocks on the southwestern slope of the hill did not provide enough space for building up a house of the usual construction and shape. However, it is possible that structures differing from the standard ones, such as shelters, sheds, huts or others, have existed there using the natural characteristics of the terrain. The artefacts (pieces of wall plaster, parts of permanent clay facilities, hearth floors, etc.) discovered in the excavated sectors provide grounds to suppose that relatively solid buildings have existed on the adjacent area17. The thin layer comprising tiny pieces of eroded rock (the same rock is documented beneath the cultural deposits), provides reason to believe that their accumulation was not a result of a single act but of a gradual process. Some authors connect a number of rock sites to the rituals performed by the Chalcolithic people inhabiting the region18. This hypothesis is worth taking into consideration when presenting the Dolno Dryanovo site, although such interpretation has to be based on unambiguous arguments.

Pottery and other ceramic finds

15The most numerous archaeological artefacts yielded by the site are potsherds19. The shape and decoration of the vessels as well as their parallels date the main occupation layer back to the Final phase of the Late Chalcolithic20. The pottery discovered in the various trenches is similar, a fact supporting the hypothesis that the layer was accumulated in a comparatively short time span, and the materials discovered in these trenches are contemporary or chronologically very close.

16Most of the vessels were made from clay mixed with a relatively high amount of mineral temper – fine quartz sand and tiny quartz pebbles mainly. Mica and fine organic inclusions were also used. Inclusions of shells in the clay were not documented. Various shades and nuances of brown dominate the pottery colour range. Additional surface coatings, thick or fine slips, and self-slips are documented on almost three quarters of the sherds.

17In most of the cases the surface of the vessels is slightly uneven, matt burnished, without shine. The fine rustication – fine scratches on the exterior, the so-called Besenstrich (fig. 10: 3, 4, 8) – is very typical. The firing varies from very nice to poor; indeed ca 50% of the sherds are brittle and their surface is easy to scratch with a fingernail. Five main technological groups of wares are defined based on a number of criteria:

• black and grey-black fine burnished ware: comprises about 10% of the total count of the sherds:

• dark brown and dark grey semi coarse ware – ca 20%;

• light brown and beige, spotted semi-fine ware – ca 5%;

• brown and dark brown semi-coarse to coarse ware – ca 15%;

• reddish-brown “soft” ware.

18The last group is the most numerous group of all, since it comprises more than 50% of the total number of sherds. Besides their colour21, the vessels are characterized by a thicker slip, which is comparatively easy to peel off. The sections of the sherds are brittle, probably due to the low firing temperature. The surface is almost always soft to the touch, matt or finely rusticated. Two sub-groups can be divided: finer (thin walled) and coarser (thick walled) vessels, which, together, cover the whole shape inventory.

19The other significant group is the fine black and grey-black burnished ware (ca 10% of the total number of the sherds). These vessels are well made, with carefully finished surfaces and well fired. About 80% of this ware is graphite-painted.

20Pottery shapes include plates, bowls, jars, amphora-shaped vessels, cups, lids, stands, miniature vessels, and a few other rare shapes. Storage vessels are represented by sherds, which are difficult to attribute to a specific type; their percentage does not exceed 7‑8%.

21The simple conical or hemispherical shapes, often with small vertical or horizontal handles under the rim, dominate the shape range of the plates. The plates of comparatively small size (D < 25 cm) with straight or slightly concave walls are typical for the pottery assemblage. The inner surface of most of the vessels is graphite-painted (fig. 6). The plates with straight or slightly convex walls and thickened rims are also common; almost one third of them have graphite-painted inner surfaces (fig. 7). Crusted decoration (using ochre pigments) is documented on a smaller number of sherds, as an independent technique or in combination with graphite-painted decoration. The preserved parts of the decorative themes usually include spiral-shaped motifs formed by sheaves of parallel graphite-painted lines, crust-painted wider bands, or a combination of the two (fig. 8; 12: 5). The latter have exact parallels in Sozopol22, Krivodol23, Tatul24 and Vaksevo-Skaleto25.

22The bowls with rounded carination, hemispherical upper and conical lower parts and thickened rims are very common for the pottery assemblage. Almost all pieces are graphite-painted; the decoration consists of linear motifs – groups of oblique lines forming various patterns (fig. 9). Exact parallels of the shape and the decoration style occur in a number of sites dating back to the Final phases of the Chalcolithic and the so-called Transitional period – Hotnitsa-Vodopada and Klise bair26, Devetaki Cave27, Sadovets-Kale28, Bezhanovo-Banunya29, Dyado Nakovoto kale30, and Yagodina Cave31. Very close parallels can also be found in Maaras Cave-Angitis32, at Limenaria on Thasos33 and the “Cyclop’s Cave” near Maroneia34. It is worth mentioning that although very similar in shape, the pottery displays certain differences in the details. The vessels from Dolno Dryanovo, Klise bair and Devetaki Cave usually have larger diameters and thinner walls than the bowls from Yagodina Cave, whose walls are much thicker. Furthermore, the decoration on the vessels from sites in present-day North Bulgaria, is often complemented by shallow and wide channelling.

23The S-shaped vessels have a considerable share in the pottery assemblage. They comprise deep bowls and large mouth jars of various sizes and body proportions (fig. 10; 11: 3, 5, 8, 13). The upper part is inverted outwards, with a marked or smooth transition to the shoulders. Some of the vessels have a pair of vertical handles slightly protruding above the rim (fig. 10: 3, 6). The vessels are not decorated as a rule and the outer surface is rusticated (fig. 10: 3, 4, 8; 11: 5). The shape can be defined as especially typical for the pottery assemblages dated back to the Final Chalcolithic (Sozopol35, Rebarkovo36, Yagodina Cave37), and similarly to those mentioned above is not familiar of the “classic” phases of the Late Chalcolithic. Special attention has to be paid to the sherds of lavishly decorated vessels with asymmetrical bodies (they look like a four-leafed clover in plan, a tradition related to the Late Chalcolithic pottery of the Krivodol and Sălcuţa cultures38) and have a pair of vertical handles on the shoulders. The best-preserved sherds belong to jars with biconical bodies with rounded carination and a conical neck.

24The graphite-painted and crusted decoration is complemented by a specific technique known in the literature as “pseudo-corded” (Wickelschnur), or by a combination of fine incisions, stamped and pricked ornaments specifically arranged to create branches covered with thick leaves, organized in the so-called festoon-shaped ornament39. The free spaces are covered with thick red paint and in some cases are lined with yellow pigment (fig. 12: 1‑4, 6). The closest parallels are again found in Sozopol40. The ornamentation style and technique have also been found in Rebarkovo and Vaksevo-Skaleto41, as well as in Šuplevac42 and Crnobuki (the earlier layer)43.

25The cups and amphora-shaped vessels are represented by single finds. The best-preserved cup comes from trench 2 (fig. 13: 1), and has exact parallels in the pottery from Devetaki Cave44. Lids belong to only one type, which is roughly hemispherical with two opposite oval openings (fig. 13: 2, 4, 5). There are parallels from the latest building levels of Tell Sultana, Stara Zagora Mineralni Bani, and others45; a conical lid with openings was also found in Rebarkovo46.

26Decorated pottery has a comparatively large share in the Dolno Dryanovo pottery assemblage, the graphite-painted vessels being the most numerous (ca 70%)47. The graphite-painted ornamentation consists of linear geometric motifs – groups of oblique or vertical parallel lines – usually covering the upper parts of bowls and hole-mouth vessels (fig. 9: 1‑5; 11: 1, 2). The ornamentation on the inner surface of the bowls consists mostly of curvilinear motifs – spirals and groups of parallel lines, sometimes in combination with triangles with inscribed circles (fig. 6: 1, 3‑6; 7: 2, 4). The graphite-painted decoration cannot be used as a very reliable chronological indicator in this case, because it finds parallels on a large territory and within a long time span. Its abrupt decrease is believed to be one of the main typical features of the Final phases of the Chalcolithic48, but such a tendency is not categorically documented in Dolno Dryanovo49. However, the other characteristics of the assemblage unambiguously date the site back to the Final Chalcolithic or, according to the periodization proposed by P. Georgieva, to the final stages of the Late Chalcolithic cultures, i.e. the second, later chronological horizon, represented in Rebarkovo, Sozopol, Šuplevac and Sălcuţa III50.

27In this context it is worth mentioning two sherds, whose decoration can be defined as a chronological marker. The first one51 is decorated with a short stamped ornament arranged in several vertical rows and almost wiped-off horizontal graphite-painted lines below (fig. 14). Formally, the imprints are reminiscent of the “false-corded” (so-called “caterpillar”) technique typical for Cernavoda I52. Vertical rows of imprints made by a short stamp were also found on a bowl from Šuplevac53, as well as on the handles of a cup from Crnobuki54. The connection between the “pseudo-corded” decoration from Pelagonia and Cernavoda I traditions is commented on in the publications55. Cernavoda I finds from Vădastra and Ostrovul Corbului yielded by assemblages related to Sălcuţa III56 provide evidence supporting the synchronization of these phenomena. The combination of the specific stamped and graphite-painted decoration on the sherd from Dolno Dryanovo can be considered as an example of interconnected decorative traditions, resulting from intensified contacts and cultural interactions in the final phases of the Chalcolithic.

28The second sherd is a fragment from the base of a deep vessel decorated with shallow incised lines, applied by a comb-shaped tool (fig. 13: 6). The same technique (“combed smoothing”) was documented on the pottery from Bezhanovo-Banunya57, Bezhanovo-Chervenata Stena58 and Kochan-Zaimova Chuka59. A similar technique (decoration or surface treatment) is also found in Cernavoda I60 and Sălcuţa IV61.

29The small finds include a fragment of a clay object (fig. 15: 1), most probably an arm of an anthropomorphic figurine similar to the one discovered in Haramiiska Dupka cave62.

30A fragment of a clay loom-weight was found in trench 2 (fig. 15: 2). Another loom-weight was found in the southern foothills of the hill, but it did not come from a reliable context. The stray find (fig. 15: 3) has exact parallels in Yagodina Cave63, Mikrothives64, Agios Ioannis65, and Hotnitsa-Vodopada66.

Relative and absolute chronology. Synchronization

31The preliminary results from the study of pottery – the shapes as well as the main features of the decoration – provide grounds to date the assemblage back to the final stages of the Late Chalcolithic. The pottery from Dolno Dryanovo may find its closest parallels in Sozopol, Rebarkovo, Vaksevo-Skaleto, as well as in the neighbouring Ilinden-Klisura and Kochan-Zaimova Chuka. Close parallels to a number of pottery shapes and ornamentation techniques can be found in the Rhodope Mountains (Yagodina Cave, Tatul, Perperikon, Pchelarovo67), the Pelagonian sites, as well as in present-day North Bulgaria (Klise Bair, Bezhanovo, Devetaki Cave, etc.).

32Samples from Dolno Dryanovo were analysed in the Radiocarbon Laboratory of UMR 5138 – Archaeology and Archaeometry at Lyon, France, within the framework of the “Balkans 4000” project68 and they provided three dates (table 1).

33In general the dates presented correspond well to the conclusions about the relative chronology of the site based on the comparative analysis of the pottery. At the same time, it is noticeable that the dates from Dolno Dryanovo do not form a compact cluster. The two earlier dates (Lyon-6046 and Lyon-6047) are closer to those from Telish III, Haramiiska Dupka II and Krivodol69. The third date (Lyon-6048) is considerably later, and allows the suggestion that the site was inhabited for a longer period within the frame of the Final Chalcolithic. However, this proposition needs additional field evidence. Another equally possible scenario involves a single, probably relatively short period of occupation, within the time span around 4000‑3900 BC. Such a date seems completely acceptable taking into consideration the sharp jump established for the calibration curve during the same period, following which the conventional dates fall within a wide time span from 5300 to 4900 BP. In this case, the considerable discrepancy between the values of the dates from Dolno Dryanovo could be due to the fact that they fall in the beginning of this “anomaly”70.

34Based on the presently known ¹⁴C dates, the phenomena studied in the Final Chalcolithic generally date back to between 4200/4100 and 3800/3750 cal BC71. The definition of separate phases within the latest stage of the development of the Balkan Chalcolithic cultures faces some objective difficulties. The known sites yielding materials dated to this period are still not numerous and are scattered over a vast territory. This makes conclusions on the relative chronology of the sites discussed unreliable and debatable, because the presence or the lack of certain marks can be a result of regional specificities as well as of chronological differences72.

35Despite that, a more detailed relative chronology can be proposed, consisting of several consecutive “horizons” of synchronous phenomena, which are united by common typological and stylistic characteristics of the pottery and similar values of the radiocarbon dates (table 2, infra). In general, this scheme is in agreement with some of the synchronization schemes already proposed by others73 and does not contradict the conclusions already made.

36The distinction between the first two chronological horizons is convincingly validated by P. Georgieva and is based on the analysis of the pottery from a number of sites dating back to the late stages of the Chalcolithic74. The formal and stylistic characteristics of the pottery from Dolno Dryanovo definitely relate the site to the later stage. This stage is especially distinctive because of the specific techniques and motifs (see the comments above on the so-called “pseudo-corded” ornamentation and festoon-shaped motifs) and the emergence of new shapes, documented over a vast territory. At least one part of the early burials with red ochre and the artefacts traditionally connected to them – the so-called zoomorphic sceptres – have to be related to the same chronological time span75. As for the absolute dates, the analyzed samples from Dolno Dryanovo support the chronological position of this group immediately after the end of the so-called “classic” phases of the Late Chalcolithic cultures. The published dates from Telish III fall within the same span of time76, but the typological and stylistic characteristics of the assemblage relate it to an earlier stage77.

37The next two chronological stages comprise a number of sites in the Rhodope Mountains and present-day Central Northern Bulgaria. Yagodina I78 and Haramiiska Dupka II are related to the earlier horizon; the radiocarbon dates from both caves are very similar and in general later that the ones from Dolno Dryanovo. The published finds and pottery from Maaras Cave-Angitis and the Cyclop’s Cave near Maroneia have very close parallels to the materials from Yagodina I and provide grounds to assume that the sites functioned in one and the same period79. The later chronological stage is established by the proven affinities between the pottery assemblages from Klise Bair and Bezhanovo on one hand80, and by the almost identical values of the radiocarbon dates from Bezhanovo-Banunya and Yagodina II on the other hand. Additional support is provided by the reliable sequence in the Yagodina Cave and the characteristics of the pottery assemblages from the two consecutive building levels in the cave81.

38The radiocarbon dates from Hotnitsa-Vodopada are compactly grouped within the interval 5000‑4850 BP and fall within the next chronological period related to the Sălcuţa IV and Galatin82. In addition, the pottery assemblages from Klise Bair and Bezhanovo-Banunya are defined as earlier than Hotnitsa-Vodopada based on the typological comparison of the ceramic vessels83. It has to be pointed out that the latest dates from Yagodina II are very close to the earliest dates from Hotnitsa, a fact which can be considered an argument supporting the chronological proximity, and even a possible partial overlap of the two phenomena. The chronological position of Telish IV in this scheme is open for discussion, but an earlier date for the site seems acceptable in view of the sequence and the pottery assemblage of the site84.

39In conclusion, the comparative analysis of the materials and the absolute dates allows the following sequence in the late 5^th and the early 4^th millennium BC to be suggested.

40The scheme presented above is preliminary, and will probably be revised accordingly with the accumulation of new information. These efforts should be aimed at developing a more precise and well-grounded sequence based on future research – both excavations and extensive analysis of the pottery assemblages at a regional and supra-regional level.