1 [Herman Boerhaave, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 78.]

2 [Willem Jacob 's Gravesande (born 26 September 1688, ’s-Hertogenbosch, Duchy of Brabant; died 28 February 1742, Leiden), a Dutch mathematician and natural philosopher, chiefly remembered for developing experimental demonstrations of the laws of classical mechanics. As professor of mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy at Leiden University, he helped to propagate Isaac Newton’s ideas in Continental Europe.]

3 [Pieter van Musschenbroek, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 88.]

4 [Hieronymus David Gaubius, see Volume 3, Lesson 14, note 15.]

5 [Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 78.]

6 [Adriaan van Royen (born 11 November 1704, Leiden; died 28 February 1779, Leiden), a Dutch botanist, a professor at Leiden University, best known for his work on flora of Southeast Asia. He was a colleague of George Clifford III, a wealthy Dutch merchant and governor of the Dutch East India Company living in Haarlem, and a noted source of new introductions from the East Indies and the Cape. He also formed a close relationship with Linnaeus, who had visited the Leiden Botanic Garden during a stay in Leiden between 1737 and 1738.]

7 [Carel de Moor (born 25 February 1655, Leiden; died 16 February 1738, Leiden), a Dutch Golden Age etcher and painter. He became a member of the Leiden Guild of St. Luke in 1683, and became deacon many times over between the years 1688 and 1711.]

8 [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, see Volume 2, Lesson 4, note 57; see also Volume 1, Lesson 7, note 39.]

9 [Antoine de Jussieu, his nephew, Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu, or his brother, Bernard de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

10 [Oratio de mundo optimo, en Prolegomena in philosophiam [manuscript edited and translated by Sluis Jacob van]. Leeuwarden: Fryske Akademy, 1988, 123 p. (Fryske Akademy Series; 684).]

11 [Letters on the inoculation of smallpox with regard to the infection of their neighbors and an entire city: “Brief over de inenting der kinderpokjes, aan den kant van de besmetting zyner nabuuren en eener geheele stad beschouwd.” De Denker, 1766, no. 3, pp. 129‑136; “Tweede brief over de inenting der kinderziekte, aan den kant der voordeelen en gevaaren beschouwd” De Denker, 1766, no. 3, pp. 153‑160.]

12 [In 1756, Camper married the widow Johanna Boerboom, daughter of the burgomaster of Leeuwarden, whom he met while treating her husband, the burgomaster of Harlingen.]

13 [Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, the Comte de Lacepède, see Volume 1, Lesson 7, note 39.]

14 [Adriaan Gilles Camper (born 31 March 1759, Amsterdam; died 5 February 1820, The Hague), a Dutch mathematics and physics professor at the University of Franeker who took to politics and became a statesman in his later years. The son of Petrus Camper, he is known today primarily for his paleontological work in collaboration with his father. In addition to publishing much of his father’s unpublished research, he wrote a biography of him.]

15 [On the reproduction of the American toads or Pipae: “Verhandeling over de voortteeling der Americaansche padden, of pipae.” Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hollandsche maatschappye der weetenschappen, 1761, no. 6, pp. 266‑284; also “De la génération du pipa, ou crapaud d’Amérique.” In Œuvres de Pierre Camper, qui ont pour objet l’histoire naturelle, la physiologie et l’anatomie comparée, vol. 3. Paris: H. J. Jansen, 1803, pp. 425‑442, pl. 33.]

16 [Anatomical description of hearing in scaly fishes: “Verhandelingen over het gehoor der geschubde visschen.” Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hollandsche maatschappye der weetenschappen, 1763, no. 7, pp. 79‑117.]

17 [Antonio Maria Valsalva, see Volume 3, Lesson 14, note 62.]

18 [On the auditory organ of [cartilaginous] fishes: “Mémoire sur l’organe de l’ouïe des poissons.” Mémoires de mathématique et de physique de l’Académie royale des sciences, 1774, no. 6, pp. 177‑197, pls 1‑3.]

19 [On the structure of the large bones in birds and their diversity in the different species: “Verhandeling over het zaamen stel der groote beenderen in vogelen, derzelver verscheidenheid in byzondere soorten.” Verhandelingen van het Bataafsch genootschap der proefondervindelyke wysbegeerte, 1774, no. 1, pp. 235‑244.]

20 [Letter from Petrus Camper in which he argues that he discovered bird skeleton pneumaticity prior to John Hunter: “Brief van den heer Petrus Camper, aan de uitgeevers der Hedendaagsche Vaderlandsche Letter-Oefeningen.” Hedendaagsche vaderlandsche letter-oefeningen, 1775, no. 4, pp. 54‑62.]

21 [Verhandeling van Petrus Camper, over het natuurlijk verschil der wezenstrekken in menschen van onderscheiden landaart en ouderdom; over het schoon in antyke beelden en gesneedene steenen. Gevolgd door een voorstel van eene nieuwe manier om hoofden van allerleye menschen met zekerheid te tekenen. Utrecht: B. Wild en J. Altheer, 1791, viii + xii + pp. 13‑108, 10 pls. Also, Dissertation physique de Mr. Pierre Camper, sur les différences réeles que présentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de différents pays et de différents âges; sur le beau qui caractérise les statues antiques et les pierres gravées. Suivie de la proposition d’une nouvelle méthode pour dessiner toutes sortes de têtes humaines avec la plus grande sûreté, pub. après le décès de l’auteur par son fils Adrien Gilles Camper. Tr. du hollandois par Denis Bernard Quatremere d’Isjonval. Utrecht: B. Wild en J. Altheer, 1791, viii + 114 + [2] p., 10 pls.]

22 [The Stadstekenacademie (“City Drawing Academy”), an eighteenth-century art academy in Amsterdam, the precursor of the Koninklijke Academie (established 1822) and the Rijksakademie van beeldende kunsten (established 1870). The primary intention was not to train students to become artists, but rather to bring youth into contact with art as part of their education. There was no formal structure to the education, although students were divided into three stages and were required to attended classes twice a week. The academy organized a yearly drawing competition, awarding the winners gold, silver and bronze medals.]

23 [On the points of similarity between the human species, quadrupeds, birds, and fishes: Redenvoeringen van wylen Petrus Camper, over de wyze, om de onderscheidene hartstogten op onze wezens te verbeelden; over de verbaazende overeenkomst tusschen de viervoetigen dieren, de vogelen, de visschen en den mensch; en over het gedaante schoon. Utrecht: B. Wild en J. Altheer, 1792, [4] + viii + 95 + [3] p., 11 pls.]

24 [Essay on the natural history of the orangutan and other monkey species, on the double-horned rhinoceros and the reindeer: Natuurkundige verhandelingen over den orang-outang; en eenige andere aap-soorten. Over den rhinoceros met den dubbelen horen; en over het rendier. Amsterdam: Meyer en Warnars, 1782, [3] + 235 + [2] p., 9 pls.]

25 [On the hearing of the cachalot or sperm whale: “Verhandeling over het gehoor van den cachelot of pot-walvisch.” Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hollandsche maatschappye der weetenschappen, 1767, no. 9, pp. 193‑229.]

26 [Observations anatomiques sur la structure intérieure et le squelette de plusieurs espèces de cétacés. Publié par son fils, Adrien Gilles Camper, avec des notes par M. G. Cuvier. Paris: Gabriel Dufour, 1820, 218 p., 53 pls.]

27 [On the orangutan, see note 24, above.]

28 [Short report on the dissection of a young elephant: “Kort berigt van de ontleding eens jongen elephants.” Hedendaagsche vaderlandsche letter-oefeningen, 1774, no. 3, pp. 293‑314.]

29 [Anatomy of a male elephant published by Adriaan Gilles Camper: Description anatomique d’un éléphant mâle. Paris: Jansen, 1802, xii + 108 p., 20 pls.]

30 [On the croaking of bullfrogs: “Aanmerkingen over het gezang van mannetjes kikvorschen.” Verhandelingen van het Bataafsch genootschap te Rotterdam, 1774, no. 1, pp. 245‑252.]

31 [Peter Simon Pallas, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 80. In 1761, Pallas went to England to study natural-history collections and to make geological observations. He was appointed professor of natural history at the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, in 1768. About the same time, he joined a scientific expedition to Russia and Siberia. For the next six years he traveled across the length and breadth of the vast empire. He found a wide distribution of mammoth and rhinoceros fossils, including some with their hairy hides preserved, in the Siberian ice. He returned to St. Petersburg in 1774 with a great amount of data and many fossil specimens. He published his major findings from the expedition in three volumes, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs. St. Petersburg: [s. n.], 1771‑1776, vol. 1, 1771, [12] + 504 p., 11 pls; vol. 2, 1773, 2 pts, [8] + pp. 1‑368 + pp. 369‑384, 32 pls; vol. 3, 1776, 2 pts, [22] + pp. 1‑454 + pp. 455‑760 + [26] p., 48 pls.]

32 [Johann Leonard Hoffmann (born 1710; died 1782), a army surgeon and amateur geologist from Maastricht who collected fossils from the local Mount Saint Peter. He was one of the three people contacted on the discovery of the Mosasaurus in 1766, and especially the second one in the 1770s known as “le grand animal” that was taken to Paris by Napoleon’s army in 1794.]

33 [Camper took great interest in all sorts of fossil discoveries, especially that of a Mosasaurus discovered in 1766 in caves near Maastricht, southern Netherlands, the first fossil of an extinct reptile identified as such. In the 1770s, Camper traveled to Maastricht to inspect the remains and made drawings that were later published by Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond (see Volume 3, Lesson 4, note 53) in Histoire naturelle de la montagne de Saint-Pierre de Maestricht. Paris: H. J. Jansen, 1799, 263 p., 54 pls.]

34 [On the best form of shoe: “Verhandeling over den besten Schoen.” Genees-, natuur- en huishoud-kundig cabinet, 1781, no. 2, pp. 275‑309.]

35 [Short report on the Dugon of the Count de Buffon and the Siren Lacertina of Sir Linnaeus: “Kort berigt, wegens den dugon van den graave de Buffon, en de siren lacertian van den ridder Linneus.” Nieuwe algemeene vaderlandsche letter-oefeningen, 1786, no. 1, pp. 275‑283.]

36 [Antonio Scarpa, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 66.]

37 [Andrea Comparetti, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 67.]

38 [William Hunter (born 23 May 1718, East Kilbride, South Lanarkshire; died 30 March 1783, London), a Scottish anatomist and physician, a celebrated teacher of anatomy, and outstanding obstetrician of his day. His guidance and training of his equally famous brother, John Hunter, was also of great importance.]

39 [William Cullen (born 15 April 1710, Hamilton, Lanarkshire; died 5 February 1790, Edinburgh), a Scottish physician, chemist, and agriculturalist, and one of the most important professors at the Edinburgh Medical School, during its heyday as the leading center of medical education in the English-speaking world.]

40 [Alexander Monro, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 7.]

41 [James Douglas, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 35.]

42 [John Hunter (born 13 February 1728, Long Calderwood near East Kilbride; died 16 October 1793, London), a Scottish surgeon, one of the most distinguished scientists and surgeons of his day. He was an early advocate of careful observation and scientific method in medicine. He was a teacher of, and collaborator with, English physician Edward Jenner (born 17 May 1749, Berkeley, Gloucestershire; died 26 January 1823, Berkeley, Gloucestershire), pioneer of the smallpox vaccine.]

43 [William Hewson (born 14 November 1739, Hexham, Northumberland; died 1 May 1774, London), an English surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist whose major contribution was in isolating fibrin, a key protein in the blood coagulation process. He also showed the existence of lymph vessels in animals and explained their function by hypothesizing the existence of a human lymphatic system, and demonstrated that red blood cells were discoid, rather than spherical as had been previously supposed by the famous Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek (born 24 October 1632, Delft; died 26 August 1723, Delft).]

44 [William Cumberland Cruikshank (born 1745, Edinburgh; died 27 June 1800), a Scottish physician and anatomist, who, in 1797, was the first to demonstrate that salts such as calcium phosphate are precipitated from urine by nitric acid. In 1786, he published The Anatomy of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body. London: G. Nicol, 1786, viii + 192 p., 3 pls.]

45 [Anatomia uteri humani gravidi tabulis illustrata (“The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures”). Birmingham: John Baskerville, 1774, [42] p., 34 pls; an anatomical atlas depicting the pregnant form through both engravings and descriptions.]

46 [Matthew Baillie (born 27 October 1761; died 23 September 1823, Duntisbourne, Gloucestershire), an English physician and pathologist. In 1789, he was appointed physician at St George’s Hospital, London, but gave up the post to establish his own medical practice in Grosvenor Square, becoming Physician in Ordinary to George III. He became Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1790, specializing in morbid anatomy.]

47 [Hunter was unusual among eighteenth-century collectors in formally and publicity arguing that fossils perhaps represent the remains of extinct animals, a view at odds with orthodoxy at the time, rooted in the Great Chain of Being. See “Observations on the bones, commonly supposed to be elephant bones, which have been found near the River Ohio in America.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1768, no. 58, pp. 34‑45; “Account of some bones found in the Rock of Gibraltar.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1771, no. 60, pp. 414‑416.]

48 [Around 1765, William Hunter started collecting widely across a range of themes beyond medicine and anatomy: books, manuscripts, prints, coins, shells, zoological specimens, and minerals. He bequeathed his collections, plus a large sum of money, to the University of Glasgow to build a museum. The collections survive today as the nucleus of the University of Glasgow’s Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, while his library and archives are now held in the University’s library.]

49 [John Hunter, see note 42, above.]

50 [In addition to his work on the lymphatic system, John Hunter helped to improve understanding of human teeth, bone growth and remodeling, inflammation, gunshot wounds, venereal diseases, digestion, the functioning of the lacteals, child development, and the separateness of maternal and fetal blood supplies. He carried out the first recorded artificial insemination in 1790 on a linen draper’s wife.]

51 [Everard Home (born 6 May 1756, Kingston upon Hull; died 31 August 1832, London), an English surgeon, educated at Westminster School. Later, he was awarded a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, but decided instead to become a pupil of his brother-in-law, John Hunter (see note 42, above), at St George’s Hospital, London (Hunter had married his sister, the poet and socialite Anne Home, 1742–1821, in July 1771). Home assisted Hunter in many of his anatomical investigations, and in the autumn of 1776, he partly described Hunter’s collection. There is also considerable evidence that Home plagiarized Hunter’s work, sometimes directly, sometimes indirectly; he also systematically destroyed his brother-in-law’s papers in order to hide evidence of this plagiarism.]

52 [“A supplement to the account of an amphibious bipes; by John Ellis, Esq. (Art. XXII), being the anatomical description of the said animal.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1766, no. 56, pp. 307‑310.]

53 [William Hewson, see note 43, above.]

54 [Cold-blooded animals, such as fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, which are incapable of regulating their own internal body temperature.]

55 [Actually the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct had been discovered long before, in 1652, by Thomas Bartholin (see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 82). However, like many who followed, Bartholin believed the lymphatic channels were extensions of arteries, not a separate system, and had their origin in body cavities where a dilated end of the channel enabled it to absorb matter from the cavity.]

56 [The Natural History of the Human Teeth. London: Joseph Johnson, 1771, [8] + 128 p., 16 pls.]

57 [Torpedo, a genus of electric rays, flattened cartilaginous fishes with enlarged pectoral fins, comprising the order Torpediniformes, that includes some 69 species in four families, capable of producing an electric discharge, ranging from 8 to 220 volts, depending on the species, and used to stun prey and for defense. The name comes from the Latin torpere, to be stiffened or paralyzed, referring to the effect on someone who handles or steps on a living specimen.]

58 [“Anatomical observations on the torpedo.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1773, no. 63, pp. 461‑480.]

59 [René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 31.]

60 [“Des effets que produit le poisson appelé en françois Torpille ou Tremble sur ceux qui le touchent; et de la cause dont ils dépendent.” Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 1714, pp. 344‑360, 2 pls.]

61 [John Walsh (born 1 July 1726, Fort St. George, Madras, India; died 9 March 1795, Mayfair, Westminster, Middlesex), an English naturalist and physiologist, secretary to the Governor of Bengal and author of “Of the electric property of the torpedo.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1773, no. 63, pp. 461‑480. Walsh’s research on electric fishes, carried out between 1772 and 1775, proved fundamental for demonstrating that electricity might be involved in animal physiology, and, moreover, in favoring a period of great progress in both the physiology and physics of electrical phenomena. However, Walsh is hardly known to modern neuroscientists and is largely neglected by science historians also. One of the reasons for this neglect is that he never published his “crucial experiment,” that is, the production of a spark from a discharge of the electric eel.]

62 [The electric eel, Electrophorus electricus, a South American electric fish, which up until 2019, was classified as the only species of its genus, but evidence based on DNA divergence, ecology and habitat, anatomy and physiology, and electrical ability, indicates the presence of at least three species. Despite the name, it is not an eel, but rather a knifefish. It is capable of delivering a shock of up to 860 volts and up to 1 ampere of current.]

63 [“An account of the Gymnotus electricus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1775, no. 65, pp. 395‑407.]

64 [Leiden jar, an antique electrical device that stores a high-voltage electric charge (applied from an external source) between electrical conductors on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It typically consists of a glass jar with metal foil cemented to the inside and the outside surfaces, and a metal terminal projecting vertically through the jar lid to make contact with the inner foil. Invented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist (born 10 June 1700, Wicewo, Poland; died 11 December 1748, Koszalin, Poland) on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek (born 14 March 1692, Leiden; died 19 September 1761, Leiden) of Leiden in 1745, it was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electrostatics. It was the first means of accumulating and preserving electric charge in large quantities that could be discharged at the experimenter’s will, thus overcoming a significant limit to early research into electrical conduction. Leiden jars are still used in education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.]

65 [“An account of certain receptacles of air, in birds, which communicate with the lungs, and are lodged both among the fleshy parts and in the hollow bones of those animals.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1774, no. 64, pp. 205‑213.]

66 [Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal Economy. London: [s. n.], 1786, [6] + 225 p., 2 pls; containing 14 articles, including “Some observations on digestion” (pp. 147‑189) and “On a secretion in the crop of breeding pigeons, for the nourishment of their young” (pp. 191‑197).]

67 [Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in Which Are Explained the Preparations in the Hunterian Collection. London: G. and W. Nicol, 1814, 2 vols, [10] + 484 p.; vii + [4] p., 132 pls.]

68 [A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gun-shot Wounds. London: J. Richardson for G. Nicol, 1794, lxvii + [1] + 575 p., 9 pls.]

69 [This mention of three volumes in-octavo must be a reference to The Works of John Hunter, with Notes [ed. by Palmer James F.]. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman, 1835, 3 vols, containing: vol. 1, “Life [of John Hunter]” by Ottley D., with notes by Palmer J. F., xx + 643 p.; vol. 2, “Treatise on the natural history and diseases of the human teeth,” with notes by Bell T., and “Treatise on the venereal disease,” with notes by Babington G. G., xvi + 488 p.; vol. 3, “Treatise on the blood, inflammation, and gun-shot wounds,” with notes by Palmer J. F., xx + 675 p. A fourth Volume containing “Observations on certain parts of the animal oeconomy, inclusive of several papers from the Philosophical Transactions,” with notes by Owen R., xii + xl + 675 pp., was published in 1837.]

70 [Alexander Monro, the Elder, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 7.]

71 [It is difficult to reconcile the statement, that the elder Monro (1697‑1767) published only a posthumous work on anatomy, with the fact that his Anatomy of the Humane Bones, appeared in 1726 (Edinburgh: Thomas Ruddiman, vii + 429 p.), followed by at least four subsequent editions in 1732, 1741, 1746, and 1750, enlarged and retitled The anatomy of the human bones and nerves: with an account of the reciprocal motions of the heart, and a description of the human lacteal sac and duct.]

72 [Alexander Monro, the Younger, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 8.]

73 [Dissertatio medica inauguralis, de testibus et de semine in variis animalibus. Edinburgh: G. Hamilton, 1755, [3] + 90 p., 5 pls.]

74 [De venis lymphaticis valvulosis et de earum in primis origine. Berlin: Christianus Frideric Henningius, 1757, 59 p.]

75 [Paolo Mascagni (born 25 January 1755, Pomarance, Italy; died 19 October 1815, Chiusdino, Italy), an Italian physician and anatomist, best known for the first complete description of the lymphatic system.]

76 [Olaus or Olof Rudbeck the Elder, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 25.]

77 [Thomas Bartholin, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 82.]

78 [Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System, Illustrated with Tables. Edinburgh: William Creech, 1783, x + 176 p., 47 pls.]

79 [Ernst Platner (born 11 June 1744, Leipzig; died 27 December 1818, Leipzig), a German physician, physiologist, and anthropologist, educated at the University of Leipzig, where in 1770 he became an associate professor of medicine. Later at Leipzig, he was appointed a full professor of physiology (1780) and of philosophy (1811). His ideas on the “nature of nerves” were published in an account titled De vi corporis in memoria specimen primum, cerebri in apprehendis et retinendis ideis officium sistens. Leipzig: Ex Officina Breitkopfia, 1767, [5] + 50 p.]

80 [Georg Prochaska (born 10 April 1749, Blížkovice, near Mahrisch Budwitz; died 17 July 1820, Vienna), a Czech-Austrian anatomist, ophthalmologist, physiologist, and pioneer in the field of neurophysiology, best remembered for developing a comprehensive theory of nervous reflex action. He is the author of De structura nervorum, tractatus anatomicus tabulis aëneis illustrates. Vindobonae: Rudolphum Graeffer, 1779, [4] + 137 p.]

81 [Cullen, see note 39, above.]

82 [Benjamin Franklin (born 17 January 1706, Boston; died 17 April 1790, Philadelphia), an American polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a leading writer, printer, political philosopher, politician, Freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, humorist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among other inventions. Franklin started exploring the phenomenon of electricity in 1746. Much of his research was recorded in Experiments and Observations on Electricity, made at Philadelphia in American. London: Edward Cave, 1751, [3] + 86 p.]

83 [The Structure and Physiology of Fishes, Explained and Compared with Those of Other Animals. Edinburgh: Charles Elliot, 1785, 128 p., 44 pls.]

84 [John Collins, see Volume 3, Lesson 2, note 25.]

85 [Ear stone, a reference to otoliths, small bony structures in the inner ear of fishes involved in sensing vibration, gravity, and movement.]

86 [Description of all the Bursae Mucosae of the Human Body; their Structure Explained, and Compared with that of the Capsular Ligaments of the Joints, and of Those Sacs Which Line the Cavities of the Thorax and Abdomen; with Remarks on the Accidents and Diseases Which Affect those Several Sacs, and on the Operations for Their Cure. Edinburgh: Charles Elliot, 1788, 59 p., 10 pls.]

87 [“Three treatises, on the brain, the eye, and the ear, illustrated by tables.” Annals of Medicine, 1797, no. 2, pp. 63‑84.]

88 [Félix Vicq d’Azyr, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 118.]

89 [Franz Josef Gall, see Volume 2, Lesson 2, note 46.]

90 [Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie, avec des planches colorées représentant au naturel les divers organes de l’homme et des animaux. Paris: François Ambroise Didot, 1786, [4] + 123 p., 69 pls.]

91 [Antoine Petit, see Volume 3, Lesson 14, note 50.]

92 [Antoine Portal, see Volume 3, Lesson 14, note 49.]

93 [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, see Volume 1, Lesson 7, note 39.]

94 [Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts) was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It was edited by Denis Diderot (French philosopher, art critic, and writer; born 5 October 1713, Langres; died 31 July 1784, Paris) and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d’Alembert (French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist; born 16 November 1717, Paris; died 29 October 1783, Paris).]

95 [Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 77.]

96 [Joseph Maria Francis de Lassone (born 3 July 1717, Carpentras; died 8 December 1788, Paris), a French physician, anatomist, mineralogist, chemist, and first physician to Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette (see Volume 2, Lesson 3, note 59).]

97 [Société royale de médecine.]

98 [Faculté de médecine de Paris.]

99 [Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (born 6 May 1758, Arras, Artois; died 28 July 1794, Place de la Révolution, Paris), a French lawyer and statesman who was one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. He is best known for his role during the Reign of Terror, during which he oversaw the arrest and execution of numerous political adversaries whom he and his allies deemed to oppose the Revolution.]

100 [Robespierre’s desire for revolutionary change was not limited to the political realm. Having denounced the “Cult of Reason” (France’s first established state-sponsored atheistic religion, intended as a replacement for Catholicism during the French Revolution) and other perceived excesses of dechristianization undertaken by political opponents in France, he sought to instill a spiritual resurgence across the nation predicated on Deist beliefs. On 6 May 1794, Robespierre recognized, in the name of the French people, the existence of God and the immortality of the human soul, and delivered the next day, a long presentation on the relation of religious and moral ideas to republican principles, supporting the establishment of an official state religion called the “Cult of the Supreme Being.”]

101 [“Première mémoire, pour servir à l’histoire anatomique des poissons.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1776, no. 7, pp. 18‑36, pls 1‑2; “Deuxième mémoire, pour servir à l’histoire anatomique des poissons.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1776, no. 7, pp. 233‑262, pls 1‑5; “Sur la structure du cerveau des animaux comparé avec celui de l’homme.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1786 [1783], pp. 468‑504, pls 7‑10.]

102 [“Première mémoire pour servir à l’anatomie des oiseaux.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1772, pp. 617‑620; “Deuxième mémoire pour servir à l’anatomie des oiseaux.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1773, pp. 566‑586.]

103 [“Mémoire sur les rapports qui se trouvent entre les usages et la structure des quatre extrémités dans l’homme et dans les quadrupèdes.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1774, pp. 254‑270.]

104 [Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature, the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. It is considered to be the precursor of natural science.]

105 [“Mémoire sur la description des nerfs de la seconde et troisième paire cervicale.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1777, pp. 21‑40.]

106 [“Quatrième mémoire sur l’anatomie des oiseaux. De la structure de l’organe de l’ouïe des oiseaux, comparé avec celui de l’homme, des quadrupèdes, des reptiles et des poissons.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1778, pp. 381‑392.]

107 [“Mémoire sur la voix. De la structure des organes qui servent à la formation de la voix, considérés dans l’homme et dans les diferentes classes d’animaux, et comparés entr’eux.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1779, pp. 178‑206, pls 7‑13.]

108 [“Mémoire sur les clavicules et sur les os claviculaires.” Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), 1788, pp. 350‑360, pls 5‑9.]

109 [Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie, avec des planches colorées représentant au naturel les divers organes de l’homme et des animaux. Paris: François Ambroise Didot, 1786, [4] + 123 p., 69 pls.]

110 [Encyclopédie méthodique, système anatomique, quadrupèdes, vol. 2. Paris: Panckoucke, 1792, clxiv + 632 p.]

111 [Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 77.]

112 [Hippolyte Cloquet (born 10 March 1787, Paris; died 3 March 1840, Paris), a French physician, anatomist, personal physician to Mohammad Shah Qajar of Persia, and author of Encyclopédie méthodique, système anatomique, dictionnaire raisonné des termes d’anatomie et de physiologie. Paris: Agasse, 1823, viii + 763 p.]

113 [“Extrait d’un mémoire de M. Vicq-d’Azir, sur la manière dont le jaune de l’œuf se comporte dans le ventre poulet nouvellement éclos.” Bulletin de la Société philomatique (Paris), 1793, no. 25, pp. 50‑51.]

114 [Andreas Vesalius, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, notes 45, 77.]

115 [Franz Josef Gall, see Volume 2, Lesson 2, note 46.]

116 [Costanzo Varolio (born 1543, Bologna; died 1575, Rome), an Italian professor of anatomy and papal physician, the first to examine the brain from its base up, in contrast with previous dissections of this organ performed from the top down. He was the first to describe many structures, including the pons, which is still known today as the pons Varolli.]

117 [Thomas Willis, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 60.]

118 [William Hunter, see note 38, above.]

119 [Gaspar Azelius, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 48.]

120 [Chyle, a milky fluid consisting of fat droplets and lymph that drains from the lacteals of the small intestine into the lymphatic system during digestion.]

121 [Olaus Rudbeck the Elder, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 25.]

122 [Thomas Bartholin, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 82.]

123 [Louis or Lodewijk de Bils, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 88.]

124 [William Hewson, see note 43, above.]

125 [William Cumberland Cruikshank, see note 44, above.]