1 [George III, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 42.]

2 [John Byron (born 8 November 1723; died 10 April 1786, London), a British Royal Navy officer and politician, known as Foulweather Jack because of his frequent encounters with bad weather at sea. As a midshipman, he sailed in the squadron under George Anson (23 April 1697, Staffordshire, England; died 6 June 1762, Moor Park, Hertfordshire, England) on his voyage around the world, though Byron made it only to southern Chile, where his ship was wrecked. He returned to England with the captain of HMS Wager. He was governor of Newfoundland following Hugh Palliser (born 26 February 1723, Kirk Deighton, North Riding of Yorkshire, England; died 19 March 1796, Chalfont St Giles, Buckinghamshire, England), who left in 1768. He circumnavigated the world as a commodore with his own squadron in 1764‑1766. He fought in battles in the Seven Years’ War and in the American Revolution. He rose to Vice Admiral of the White before his death in 1786.]

3 [Samuel Wallis (born 23 April 1728, Fenteroon Farm, near Camelford, Cornwall; died 21 January 1795, London), a British naval officer and explorer of the Pacific Ocean. He made the first recorded visit by a European navigator to Tahiti.]

4 [Philip Carteret (born 22 January 1733, Trinity Manor, Jersey; died 21 July 1796, Southampton), a British naval officer and explorer who participated in two of the Royal Navy’s circumnavigation expeditions in 1764‑1766 and 1766‑1769.]

5 [James Cook, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 43.]

6 [Joseph Banks, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 44.]

7 [Daniel Carlsson Solander, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 45.]

8 [Sydney Parkinson (born c. 1745; died at sea, 26 January 1771), a Scottish botanical illustrator and natural history artist, the first European artist to visit Australia, New Zealand, and Tahiti. He was employed by Joseph Banks to travel with him on James Cook’s first voyage to the Pacific in 1768, in HMS Endeavour. Parkinson made nearly a thousand drawings of plants and animals collected by Banks and Daniel Solander on the voyage. He had to work in difficult conditions, living and working in a small cabin surrounded by hundreds of specimens. In Tahiti he was plagued by swarms of flies that ate the paint as he worked. He died at sea on the way to Cape Town of dysentery contracted at Princes’ Island off the western end of Java.]

9 [Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Johann Georg Adam Forster, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 46.]

10 [A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet, becoming visible against (and hence obscuring a small portion of) the solar disk. During a transit, Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black dot moving across the face of the Sun. The duration of such transits is usually several hours. A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon. While the diameter of Venus is more than three times that of the Moon, Venus appears smaller, and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun, because it is much farther away from Earth.]

11 [Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 66.]

12 [Philibert Commerson (born 18 November 1727, Châtillon-les-Dombes, France; died 14 March 1773, Mauritius), a French naturalist, best known for accompanying Louis-Antoine de Bougainville on his voyage of circumnavigation in 1766‑1769. Commerson joined Bougainville after being recommended for the position of naturalist by the Paris Academy of Sciences. Wherever the expedition went, he made extensive observations and large collections of plants and animals. On the return voyage to France in 1768, he remained behind at Mauritius, in order to botanize, but he died there at the age of 45. His extensive collections from the voyage did not receive their deserved recognition. Although his numerous manuscripts and herbaria were brought to Paris after his death, they were never systematically organized and evaluated. Unaware of his death in 1773, the Paris Academy of Sciences elected him as a fellow botanist just a few months later.]

13 [Pierre Sonnerat (born 18 August 1748, Lyon; died 31 March 1814, Paris), a French naturalist, colonial administrator, writer, and explorer, who made several voyages to southeast Asia, visiting the Philippines and Moluccas between 1769 and 1772. At Mauritius in 1767, Sonnerat met the naturalist Philibert Commerson and worked for him briefly. He returned to Paris in 1814 where he died.]

14 [Pierre Poivre (born 23 August 1719, Lyon; died 6 January 1786), a French horticulturist and botanist, who became administrator intendant of Mauritius and Réunion, where he is famous for establishing a botanical garden, the present day Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden (Botanical Garden of Pamplemousses), which features specimens of trees, shrubs and plants imported from tropical habitats worldwide. He is also remembered for introducing spice plants to Mauritius and Réunion, such as clove and nutmeg, commodities which at the time were controlled by the Dutch, who had a virtual monopoly on them in the Dutch East Indies.]

15 [Publications of Sonnerat: Voyage à la Nouvelle-Guinée (Paris: Chez Ruault, 1776, xii + [4] + 206 p., 120 pls, in-quarto) and Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine, fait depuis 1774 jusqu’à 1781 (Paris: Chez l’Auteur, 1782, 2 vols, xxiv + 318 p., pls 1‑80; viii + 298 + [60] p., pls 81‑116, in-quarto).]

16 [Anna of Russia or Anna Ioannovna, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 132.]

17 [Peter the Great or Pyotr Alexeyevich, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 129.]

18 [Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 58.]

19 [Peter Simon Pallas, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 80.]

20 [Baron Charles de Geer, see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 8.]

21 [René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 31.]

22 [Johan Christian Fabricius (born 7 January 1745, Tønder, Schleswig; died 3 March 1808, Kiel, Holstein), a Danish zoologist and student of Carl Linnaeus, considered to be one of the most important entomologists of the eighteenth century, having named nearly 10,000 species, and established the basis for the modern insect classification.]

23 [Estimates of the total number of insect species vary considerably. Globally, scientists have described and named about 925,000 species, but some estimates of the total number are as high as 30 million.]

24 [Georg Ernst Stahl, see Volume 2, Lesson 9, note 90.]

25 [Jan Baptist van Helmont, see Volume 2, Lesson 10, note 66.]

26 [Francis Glisson, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 71.]

27 [Johannes de Gorter, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 76.]

28 [Friedrich Hoffmann, see Volume 3, Lesson 7, notes 15 and 18.]

29 [Albrecht von Haller, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 16.]

30 [Herman Boerhaave, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 78.]

31 [Frederik Ruysch, see Volume 2, Lesson 6, note 123; and Lesson 15, notes 45 and 54.]

32 [Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 77.]

33 [Petrus Camper (born 11 May 1722, Leiden; died 7 April 1789, The Hague), a Dutch physician, anatomist, physiologist, midwife, zoologist, anthropologist, palaeontologist, and naturalist, one of the first to take an interest in comparative anatomy, demonstrating the principle of correlation in all organisms by “metamorphosis.” In a 1778 lecture entitled “On the points of similarity between the human species, quadrupeds, birds, and fishes; with rules for drawing, founded on this similarity,” he metamorphosed a horse into a human being, thus showing similarity between all vertebrates.]

34 [William Hunter (born 23 May 1718, East Kilbride, South Lanarkshire, Scotland; died 30 March 1783, London), a Scottish anatomist, physician, a teacher of anatomy, and the outstanding obstetrician of his day. In 1764, he became physician to Queen Charlotte. In 1768 he built the famous anatomy theatre and museum in Great Windmill Street, Soho, where the best British anatomists and surgeons of the period were trained.]

35 [Alexander Monro, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 7.]

36 [Félix Vicq d’Azyr, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 118.]

37 [Fabricius, see note 22, above.]

38 [William Harvey, see Volume 2, Lesson 2, note 72.]

39 [Marcello Malpighi, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 121.]

40 [Lazzaro Spallanzani, see Volume 1, Lesson 8, note 7.]

41 [Caspar Friedrich Wolff, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 69.]

42 [Bernard de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

43 [Michel Adanson (born 7 April 1727, Aix-en-Provence; died 3 August 1806, Paris), a French botanist and naturalist of Scottish descent, whose family moved to Paris in 1730. After leaving the Collège Sainte-Barbe he was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Réaumur and Bernard de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. He attended lectures at the Jardin du Roi and the Collège Royal in Paris from 1741 to 1746. At the end of 1748, funded by a director of the Compagnie des Indes, he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, where he remained for five years, collecting and describing numerous animals and plants. After his return to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the materials he had collected for his Histoire naturelle du Sénégal, published in 1757. In 1763 he published his Familles naturelles des plantes. Adanson was an early proponent of the inheritance of acquired characters and a limited view of evolution. He died in Paris after months of severe suffering.]

44 [Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

45 [Nehemiah Grew, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 23.]

46 [Marcello Malpighi, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 121.]

47 [Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 19; not to be confused with French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Duhamel, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 110.]

48 [Charles Bonnet, see Volume 3, Lesson 2, note 6.]

49 [La physique des arbres: où il est traité de l’anatomie des plantes et de l’économie végétale: pour servir d’introduction au traité complet des bois & des forests: avec une dissertation sur l’utilité des méthodes de botanique; & une explication des termes propres à cette science, & qui sont en usage pour l’exploitation des bois & des forêts. Paris: H. L. Guerin & L. F. Delatour, 1758, 2 vols, [2] + xlix + lxviii + 306 p., 7 + 14 pls; iv + 432 p., 17 + 5 pls.]

50 [Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 17.]

51 [Jean André Deluc, see Volume 1, Lesson 3, note 22.]

52 [Peter Simon Pallas, see Volume 2, Lesson 17, note 80.]

53 [Nicolas Desmarest (born 16 September 1725, Soulaines-Dhuys; died 20 September 1815, Paris), a French geologist, educated at the college of the Oratorians of Troyes and Paris. Taking full advantage of the instruction he received, he was able to support himself by teaching, allowing him to continue his studies independently. In 1753 he successfully competed for a prize by writing an essay on the ancient connection between England and France. This attracted much attention, and ultimately led to his being employed in studying and reporting on manufactures in different countries, and in 1788 to his appointment as inspector-general of the manufactures of France. He is best remembered for his contributions to the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (1751‑1772), in particular, the multi-Volume Géographie-physique.]

54 [Jean-Étienne Guettard (born 22 September 1715, Étampes, near Paris; died 7 January 1786, Paris), a French botanist and mineralogist, who received a knowledge of plants from his grandfather (an apothecary), and later qualified as a doctor of medicine. Pursuing the study of botany in various parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and rocks. In 1746, he communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and rocks, accompanied by a map on which he recorded his observations. He was thus the first to demonstrate the usefulness of geological maps. He made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain, rivers, and sea; and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of Auvergne.]

55 [A reference to the Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (Freiberg University of Mining and Technology or Freiberg Mining Academy, University of Technology), a German university of technology with about 4,300 students in the city of Freiberg, Saxony. It was established in 1765 by Prince Franz Xaver (1730‑1896), regent of Saxony, based on plans by Friedrich Wilhelm von Oppel (1720‑1769) and Friedrich Anton von Heynitz (1725‑1802), and is the oldest university of mining and metallurgy in the world. Werner is Abraham Gottlob Werner (born 25 September 1749, Wehrau, Prussian Silesia, now Osiecznica, Poland; died 30 June 1817, Dresden, Kingdom of Saxony), a German geologist who set out an early theory about the stratification of the Earth’s crust and propounded a history of the Earth that came to be known as Neptunism. While most tenets of Neptunism were eventually set aside, Werner is remembered for his demonstration of chronological succession in rocks; for the zeal with which he infused his pupils; and for the impulse he thereby gave to the study of geology. He has been called the “father of German geology.”]

56 [Madrepore, a stony coral of the genus Madrepora, often found forming reefs or islands in tropical locations.]

57 [Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, see Volume 2, Lesson 9, note 2.]

58 [Torbern Olaf Bergman, see Volume 2, Lesson 9, note 1.]

59 [Martin Heinrich Klaproth, see Volume 3, Lesson 8, note 21.]

60 [Louis Nicolas Vauquelin, see Volume 3, Lesson 8, note 22.]

61 [Jean-Baptiste Louis Romé de Lisle, see Volume 3, Lesson 9, note 21.]

62 [René Just Haüy, see Volume 3, Lesson 9, note 22.]

63 [Georg Ernst Stahl, see Volume 2, Lesson 9, note 90.]

64 [Carl Wilhelm Scheele, see Volume 3, Lesson 2, note 10.]

65 [Joseph Priestley, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 88.]

66 [Henry Cavendish, see Volume 2, Lesson 10, note 77.]

67 [Pierre Bayen (born 7 February 1725, Châlons-sur-Marne; died Paris, 15 February 1798), a French chemist, educated in pharmacy in Reims and in Paris. A member of the College de pharmacie, he devoted a great deal of his time to chemical research and he was named as a member of the Institut national de France when it was created. He was one of the founders of analytical chemistry and of mineralogy. His theories on the toxicology of pewter, in which he wrongly suggested that using pewter glasses rendered the water toxic, were famous. He is one of the precursors of the discovery of oxygen and one of the creators of modern chemistry. The Lycée Pierre Bayen in Chalons was named in his memory.]

68 [Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, see Volume 2, Lesson 10, note 78.]

69 [Louis-Bernard Guyton, Baron de Morveau, Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau after the French Revolution (born 4 January 1737, Dijon; died 2 January 1816, Paris), a French chemist, politician, and aeronaut. In 1773, already interested in chemistry, he proposed the use of “muriatic acid gas” for fumigation of buildings and as a result is sometimes given credit for having suggested chlorine in this use. In 1782, he resigned this post to dedicate himself to chemistry, collaborating on the Encyclopédie Méthodique and working on industrial applications. He performed various useful services in this role, and founded La Société des Mines et Verreries in Saint-Bérain-sur-Dheune. He is also credited with producing the first systematic method of chemical nomenclature.]

70 [Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, see Volume 3, Lesson 8, note 67.]

71 [Claude Louis Berthollet, see Volume 3, Lesson 8, note 52.]

72 [Robert Boyle, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 32.]

73 [John Mayow, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 68.]

74 [Thomas Willis, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 59.]

75 [Albrecht von Haller, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 16.]

76 [Marie François Xavier Bichat, see Volume 2, Lesson 15, note 24.]

77 [John Locke, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 85.]

78 [Leibniz, see Volume 3, Lesson 3.]

79 [Immanuel Kant (see Volume 3, Lesson 3, note 34), author of Critik der reinen Vernunft (“Critique of Pure Reason”). Riga: Hartknoch, 1781, [30] + 856 p.]

80 [Johann Gottlieb Fichte, see Volume 1, Lesson 4, note 47.]

81 [Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (born 27 January 1775, Leonberg, Württemberg, Holy Roman Empire; died 20 August 1854, Bad Ragaz, Switzerland), a German philosopher, important in the development of German idealism, but whose philosophy is regarded as difficult to interpret because of its evolving nature. Some scholars characterize Schelling as a protean thinker who, although brilliant, jumped from one subject to another and lacked the synthesizing power needed to arrive at a complete philosophical system.]

82 [Friedrich von Schelling’s Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur: als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissenschaft (“Ideas for a philosophy of Nature”). Jena; Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1797, lxiv + 262 p.]

83 [Lazzaro Spallanzani, see Volume 1, Lesson 8, note 7.]