1 [Johan Stensson Rothman (born 24 February 1684, Växjö; died 20 July 1763, Växjö), a Swedish physician and naturalist, Linnaeus’s tutor and benefactor at Växjö who introduced Linnaeus to the works of Tournefort (see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 31) and other prominent naturalists.]

2 [Kilian Stobaeus (born 6 February 1690, Vinslöv, Sweden; died 17 February 1742, Lund, Sweden), a Swedish physician, naturalist, and professor of history at Lund University; Linnaeus’s teacher and patron during his years in Lund (1727‑1728).]

3 [Olaus Celsius the Elder, or Olof Celsius (1670‑1756), a Swedish naturalist, philologist, clergyman, professor of theology at Uppsala, and author of a famous book on biblical plants, the Hierobotanicon (see note 4, below); teacher and patron of Linnaeus who employed him to help botanize around Uppsala during Linnaeus’s impoverished student days.]

4 [Olvaii Celsii Hierobotanicon, sive de Plantis sacre scripturae, dissertations breves. Uppsala: Sumtu auctoris, 1745‑1747, 2 vols, xvi + 572 p. (pars prima); iv + 600 p. (pars posterior).]

5 [Olaus or Olof Rudbeck, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 25.]

6 [Philosophia botanica, in qua explicantur fundamenta botanica, cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorum, adjectis figuris aeneis. Stockholm: Godofr. Kiesewetter, 1751, [5] + 364 p.]

7 [Sara Elisabeth Moraea (born 26 April 1716, Falun, Sweden; died 20 April 1806, Uppsala), daughter of the physician Johan Moraeus (1672‑1742) and his wife Elisabeth Hansdotter (1691‑1769), and wife of Carl Linnaeus; together they had seven children, five of whom (one son and four daughters) survived to adulthood. Through the auctioning of her deceased husband’s scientific records, she was involved in the creation of the Linnean Society of London.]

8 [Herman Boerhaave, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 78.]

9 [George Clifford III (born 7 January 1685, Amsterdam; died 10 April 1760, Heemstede), a wealthy Dutch banker and one of the directors of the Dutch East India Company, known for his keen interest in plants and gardens. At Hartekamp, his estate in Heemstede, North Holland, he maintained a rich variety of plants, and he engaged Linnaeus, who stayed at his estate from 1736 to 1738, to curate the collection and to write Hortus Cliffortianus, a masterpiece of early botanical literature published in 1738. Many specimens from Clifford’s garden were also studied by Linnaeus for his Species plantarum (Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius, 1753, 2 vols, [12] + pp. 1‑560; pp. 561‑1200 + [31] p., in-octavo.)]

10 [Hartekamp, see note 9, above.]

11 [Fundamenta botanica, quae majorum operum prodromi instar theoriam scientiae botanices per breves aphorismos tradunt. Amsterdam: Salomon Schouten, 1736, [4] + 34 + [1] p., in-duodecimo.]

12 [Bibliotheca botanica recensens libros plus mille de plantis hue usque editos, secundum systema auctorum naturale in classes, ordines, genera et species dispositos, additis editionis loco, tempore, forma, lingua. Cum explicatione. Amsterdam: Salomon Schouten, 1736, [14] + 153 + [16] p.]

13 [Musa Cliffortiana florens Hartecampi 1736 prope Harlemum. Leiden: [s. n.], 1736, [4] + 46 + [2] p., with 2 large folding engraved pls.]

14 [Systema naturae, sive Regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, et species. Leiden: Theodor Haak, 1 vol., 7 leaves, in-folio.]

15 [Genera plantarum eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omniun fructificationis partium. Leiden: Conrad Wishoff, 1737, xxxii + 500 + [22] p.]

16 [Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 31.]

17 [Flora Lapponica exhibens plantas per Lapponiam crescentes, secundum systema sexuale collectas in itinere impensis Soc. Reg. Litter, et Scient. Sveciae A. 1732 instituto. Additis synonymis, et locis natalibus omnium, descriptionibus et figuris rariorum, viribus medicatis et oeconomicis plurimarum. Amsterdam: Salomon Schouten, 1737, [20] + 372 + [38] p., with 12 folding pls, in-octavo.]

18 [Critica botanica in quo nomina plantarum generica, specifica, et variantia examini subjiciuntur, selectiora confirmantur, indigna rejiciuntur; simulque doctrina circa denominationem plantarum traditor. Leiden: Conrad Wishoff, 1737, [16] + 270 + [36] + [16] + 24 p.]

19 [Hortus Cliffortianus, see note 13, above.]

20 [Hans Sloane, see Volume 2, Lesson 6, note 68.]

21 [Johann Jacob Dillenius, see Chapter 5, note 27.]

22 [Bernard de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

23 [Sébastien Vaillant, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 31.]

24 [Carl Gustaf Tessin, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 33.]

25 [Charles de Geer, see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 8.]

26 [Museum Tessinianum, opera illustrissimi comitis, Dom. Car. Gust. Tessin… collectum. Stockholm: Lars Salvius, 1753, [8] + 123 + [9] p. For Carl Gustaf Tessin, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 33.]

27 [Gustav III (born 24 January 1746, Stockholm; died 29 March 1792, Stockholm), King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792. He was the eldest son of Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden and Queen Lovisa Ulrika (see note 29, below) and a first cousin of Empress Catherine the Great of Russia. A bulwark of enlightened despotism, he spent considerable public funds on cultural ventures, which were controversial among his critics, as well as a number of failed military attempts. A patron of the arts and benefactor of arts and literature, he founded the Swedish Academy in 1786, created a national costume, introduced in 1778, and founded the Royal Swedish Opera company, which held its first performance in January 1773.]

28 [Museum Adolpho-Fridericianum, quod, cum consensu ampliss. Fac. Medicae in Regia Acad. Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri celeberrimi, D.D. Caroli Linnaei… Speciminis academici loco publico bonorum examini submittit Laurentius Balk Fil. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius, 1746, 4 + 48 + [2] p., with 2 folding pls. For Adolf Frederick, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 31.]

29 [Museum S:ae R:ae M:tis Ludovicae Ulricae reginae Svecorum, Gothorum, Vandalorumque… in quo animalia rariora, exotica, imprimis insecta et conchilia describuntur et determinantur. Prodromi instar editum. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius, 1764, 2 vols, [9] + 720 + [2] p.; 110 + [1] p. Lovisa Ulrika (born 24 July 1720, Berlin; died 16 July 1782, Svartsjö, Sweden), Queen of Sweden between 1751 and 1771 by her marriage to King Adolf Frederick, and queen mother during the reign of King Gustav III. Described as beautiful, intelligent, with a fierce temperament and a strong will, she was initially received with enthusiasm in Sweden. Despite French being her native language, she was tutored in Swedish and mastered it well after only two years. She studied Swedish literature, built a substantial Swedish language library, and developed a strong interest in the natural sciences. She corresponded with members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and assembled a large collection of plants and animals and other curiosities. Her arrogant and haughty demeanor, however, eventually made her less popular outside of the royal court.]

30 [The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien) is one of the royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting the natural sciences and mathematics and strengthen their influence in society, whilst endeavoring to promote the exchange of ideas between various disciplines. The purpose of the academy was to focus on useful knowledge, and to publish in Swedish in order to widely disseminate the academy’s findings. Linnaeus, one of a group of six founders the Academy, served as its first president, chosen by drawing lots.]

31 [Philosophia botanica, see note 6, above.]

32 [Species plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum dijferentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius, 1753, 2 vols, [12] + pp. 1‑560; pp. 561‑1200 + [31] p., in-octavo.]

33 [Following publication of the first edition of Systema naturae in 1735 (see note 14, above), 12 additional editions were published as follows: 2nd edition, Stockholm: Kiesewetter, 1740; 3rd edition, Halle: Gedruckt mit Gebauerischen Schriften, 1740 (a reprinting of the 1st, rearranged, and with a new preface, and German translation in parallel columns); 4th edition, Paris: David, 1744 (a reprinting of the 2nd, edited by Bernard de Jussieu, with Swedish names replaced by French equivalents); 5th edition, Halle: Halae Magdeburgicae, 1747 (a reprinting of the 2nd, with Swedish names replaced by German); 6th edition, Stockholm: Kiesewetter, 1748 (with names of the animals and minerals given in Swedish and in Latin; illustrated with 8 pls); 7th edition, Leipzig: Kiesewetter, 1748 (a reprinting of the 6th, with Swedish names replaced by German); 8th edition, Stockholm: Salvius, 1753 (“Regnum vegetable” only); 9th edition, Leiden: Haak, 1756 (a reprinting of the 7th, edited by Jan Frederik Gronovius, with German names replaced by French; section on fishes revised, presumably by Laurens Theodor Gronovius; see Wheeler 1979); 10th edition, Stockholm: Salvius, 1758‑1759; pirated edition, Halle: Curt, 1760‑1770 (a reprinting of the 10th); 11th edition, Leipzig, 1762 (a reprinting of the 10th, probably a ghost edition; see Hulth 1907: 7); 12th edition, Stockholm: Salvius, 1766‑1768; —, Vienna: Thomae, 1767‑1770 (a reprinting of the 12th); 13th edition, Leipzig: Beer, 1788‑1793 (based on the 12th but edited and greatly expanded by Johann Friedrich Gmelin); —, Lyons: Delamollière, 1788‑1796 (a reprinting of the 13th).]

34 [Fundamenta botanica, see note 11, above.]

35 [Johann Jacob Dillenius, see Chapter 5, note 27, above.]

36 [Antoine de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

37 [Johann Heinrich Burckhard, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 27.]

38 [Albrecht von Haller, see Volume 2, Lesson 1, note 16.]

39 [Critica botanica, see note 18, above.]

40 [Philosophia botanica, see note 6, above.]

41 [Joseph Gaertner (born 1732, died1791), a German botanist who made significant progress in the scientific classification of fruits and seeds. His most important work, a carpology entitled De fructibus et seminibus plantarum (“Treatise on the Fruits and Seeds of Plants”) was published in two volumes, in 1788 and 1793 (Vol. 1, Stutgardiae: Sumtibus Auctoris, Typis Academiae Carolinae, 1788, [10] + clxxxii + [2] + 384 + [7] p. + pls i-lxxix; Vol. 2, Tubingae: Typis Guilielmi Henrici Schrammii, 1791, lii + 520 p. + pls lxxx-clxxx). Among the first systematic and scientific treatments of this subject, Gaertner’s book was based on more than 1,000 different species of plants and their fruits or seeds and illustrated nearly 200.]

42 [A reference to Achille Richard (born 27 April 1794, Paris; died 5 October 1852), a celebrated French botanist and physician, a member of the French Academy of Sciences (Botanical Section) and of the French National Academy of Medicine, and author of a highly successful botanical textbook entitled Nouveaux éléments de botanique et de physiologie végétale (Paris: Chez Béchet jeune, 1819, 410 p., 8 pls). The book went through ten editions and was translated into several languages, including Russian.]

43 [Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 31.]

44 [Paul Hermann, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 82.]

45 [Gaspard or Caspar Bauhin, see Volume 2, Lesson 2, note 112.]

46 [“Fundamenta ornithologiae, dissert. praesid. Linnaeo, Upsaliae”. In Caroli Linnaei… amœnitates academicae: seu dissertationes variae physicae, medicae, botanicae antehac seorsim editae nunc collectae et auctae cum tabulis aeneis. Holmiae: apud G. Kiesewetter; Lipsiae: apud L. Salvium, 1765, vol. 7, 109 p., with figs.

47 [A reference to Fundamenta testaceologiae, dissert. praesid. Carolo à Linné, proponet auctor Adolphus Murray. Upsaliae: Ex officina Edmanniana, 1771, [iv] + 43 p., with folding engraved plate.]

48 [Fundamenta entomologiae: or, An Introduction to the Knowledge of Insects. Being a Translation of the Fundamenta entomologiae of Linnaeus, farther Illustrated with Copper Plates and Additions, by William Curtis. London: printed and sold by G. Pearch, 1772, viii + 90 p., with 2 pls.]

49 [For the editions of Linnaeus’s Systema naturae, see note 33, above.]

50 [Jan Frederik Gronovius (born 10 February 1690, Leiden; died 10 July 1762, Leiden), a Dutch botanist, known for his Flora Virginica, exhibens plantas (Leiden: Cornelium Haak, 1739‑1743, 2 pts, [4] + pp. 1‑128 + [6] p.; pp. 129‑206 + [4] p.) but better remembered for his enthusiastic support of Linnaeus. He and colleague Isaac Lawson (see note 51, below) were so impressed with the Swede’s Systema naturae that they sent it to the press at their own expense.]

51 [Isaac Lawson (d. 1747), a Scottish physician, student at Leiden University where he studied medicine and botany under Herman Boerhaave and graduated as an M.D. in 1737, with a thesis entitled Dissertatio Academica sistens Nihil. He became an intimate friend of Linnaeus, whom he several times assisted with gifts of money. In conjunction with Jan Frederik Gronovius (see note 50, above), he paid for the printing of the first edition of Systema Naturae in 1735. Lawson later became a physician to the British army, but died at Oosterhout in the Netherlands in 1747.]

52 [Methodus sexualis sistens genera plantarum secundum mares et feminas in classes et ordines redacta. Leiden: Coenradum Wishoff, 1737, 23 p.]

53 [A reference to the third edition of Systema naturae: Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. Halle: Gebauer, 1740, [8] + 70 + [1] p.]

54 [Bernard de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

55 [Johann Friedrich Gmelin, see Volume 1, Lesson 13, note 28.]

56 [Peter Artedi, see Volume 1, Lesson 13, note 17. See also Pietsch & Aili 2023b.]

57 [Mathurin-Jacques Brisson (see Volume 3, Lesson 18, note 28), author of Regnum animale in classes IX distributum sive Synopsis methodica (Paris: C. J. B. Bauche, 1756, [2] + vi + [1] + 382 p., 1 folding plate), in which he removed cetaceans from the fishes and allied them with viviparous quadrupeds.]

58 [Alexander Garden, see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 99.]

59 [Linnaeus erected the amphibia nantes to contain a number of cartilaginous fishes (lampreys, sturgeons, sharks, and rays) that he supposed were not true fishes, but rather forms that breathed through lungs rather than gills. In making this mistake, it is said that he was misled by Alexander Garden who claimed that the forked swim bladders of certain species of fishes were lungs.]

60 [Tableau élémentaire d’histoire naturelle des animaux. Paris: Baudouin, 1798, xvi + 710 p., with 14 engraved pls.]

61 [Alexandre Brongniart (born 5 February 1770, Paris; died 7 October 1847, Paris), a French chemist, mineralogist, and zoologist, who collaborated with Cuvier on a study of the geology of the region around Paris. He also wrote several treatises on mineralogy, made an extensive study of trilobites, and made pioneering contributions to stratigraphy by developing fossil markers for dating strata. As a zoologist, he introduced a new classification of reptiles in which he was the first to clearly distinguish the frogs and salamanders from the reptiles: “Essai d’une classification naturelle des reptiles.” Mémoires présentés à l’Institut des Sciences, lettres et arts, par divers savans, et lus dans ses assemblées. Sciences, mathématiques et physiques, tome premier, 1805, pp. 587‑637.]

62 [Guillaume-Antoine Olivier (born 19 January 1756, Toulon; died 1 October 1814, Lyon), a French entomologist who studied medicine in Montpellier and afterward served as a naturalist on a six-year scientific journey that took him to Asia Minor, Persia, Egypt, Cyprus, and Corfu. He returned to France in 1798 with a large collection of natural history specimens that formed the basis of numerous publications, including his magnum opus, Entomologie, ou, Histoire naturelle des insectes: avec leurs caractères génériques et spécifiques, leur description, leur synonymie, et leur enluminée, Coléoptères. Paris: Imprimerie Baudoin, 1789‑1808, 8 vols: vol. 1, 1789, xx + 26 + 4 + 190 + 14 + 84 + 92 + 4 +41 p.; vol. 2, 1790, [5] + 16 + 8 + 22 + 22 + 10 + 10 + 12 + 12 + 10 + 4 + 16 + 8 + 6 + 12 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 18 + 14 + 28 + 12 + 4 + 6 + 54 + 96 + 32 + 8 p.; vol. 3, 1795, [1] + 116 + 16 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 39 + 14 + 4 + 38 + 4 + 7 + 4 + 8 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 16 + 5 + 6 + 6 + 5 + 13 + 8 + 12 + 19 + 6 + 18 + 30 + 10 + 9 + 6 + 7 + 10 + 8 p.; vol. 4, 1795, [1] + 41 + 132 + 41 + 30 + 72 + 4 + 4 + 34 + 10 + 10 + 12 + 4 + 18 + 6 + 18 + 14 + 24 + 16 p.; vol. 5, 1807, [1] + 612 p.; vol. 6, 1808, [1] + pp. 614‑1104; vol. 7, 1808, [1] + 188 color pls; vol. 8, 1808, [1] + 172 color pls.]

63 [Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 31.]

64 [Labiatae or Lamiaceae, a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint or deadnettle or sage family, of which many are aromatic and include widely used culinary herbs, such as basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, hyssop, thyme, lavender, and perilla.]

65 [The Liliaceae or lily family, consisting of about 15 genera and about 705 known species of flowering plants. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity.]

66 [Amœnitates academicae, seu, Dissertationes variae physicae, medicae, botanicae: antehac seorsim editae: nunc collectae et auctae: cum tabulis aeneis, the title of a ten-Volume zoological and botanical series (published from 1749‑1790) consisting of the 186 academic dissertations defended by students of Linnaeus during the period 1743‑1776. Seven out of ten volumes were published by Linnaeus himself, the last three were edited by Johann Christian von Schreber (a German naturalist, born 17 January 1739 in Weissensee, Thuringia, died 10 December 1810 in Erlangen, appointed professor of materia medica at the University of Erlangen in 1769). Unlike the common practice today in which doctoral students write their own dissertations and defend them, in eighteenth-century Sweden the respondents typically expounded and defended the ideas of the professor. Thus, what are usually referred to as the Linnaean dissertations are attributed to Linnaeus, even though they are also associated with the respondents who defended them and whose names appear on their title pages.]

67 [Jean-Baptiste Louis Romé de Lisle, see Volume 3, Lesson 9, note 21.]

68 [René Just Haüy, see Volume 3, Lesson 9, note 22.]

69 [Linnaean dissertation no. 4, “Description of the corals of the Baltic sea,” defended 8 June 1745 by Henric Fougt (1720‑1782): “Corallia baltica, Dissertatio, corallia baltica adumbrans, quam, consensu Ampliss. Facultat. Medicae in Regia Academia Upsaliensi, praeside, celeberrimo et experientissimo viro, domino Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… publicae bonorum censurae submittit Henricus Fougt… In Audit. Carol. Majori ad diem VIII. Junii Anni MDCCXLV. Horis, ante meridiem, consuetis”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 1, pp. 74‑106.]

70 [Linnaean dissertation no. 12, “On sex differentiation in plants,” defended June 1746 by Johan Gustaf Wahlbom (1724‑1808): “Sponsalia plantarum, quae, cum consensu Ampl. Facult. Medicae in Regia Acad. Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri celeberrimi et experientissimi, D. D. Caroli Linnaei… publico bonorum examini submittit Johannes Gustavus Wahlbom, Calmariensis, in Audit. Carol. Majori die Junii Anni MDCCXLVI. Horis, ante meridiem consuetis”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 1, pp. 327‑380.]

71 [Sébastien Vaillant (see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 31), author of Botanicon Parisiense; ou, Dénombrement par ordre alphabétique des plantes, qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris, avec plusieurs descriptions des plantes, leurs synonymes, le tems de fleurir & de grainer et une critique des auteurs de botanique par feu Monsieur Sébastien Vaillant. Leiden: Jean et Herman Verbeek; Amsterdam: Balthazar Lakeman, 1727, [29] + xii + map + 206 + [10] p., 33 pls.]

72 [Linnaean dissertation no. 13, “An essay on the strength and energy of growing plants,” defended June 1747 by Fredrik Hasselquist (1722‑1752): “Vires plantarum, dissertatione academica, cum cons. Ampliss. Facult. Medicae in Regia Academia Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri experientissimi et celeberrimi, Dn. Doct. Caroli Linnaei… examini publico subjectae a Friderico Hasselquist… In Auditor. Gustaviano, die Junii Anni MDCCXLVII. Horis ante meridiem solitis”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 1, pp. 418‑453.]

73 [Linnaean dissertation no. 20, “Economy of nature,” defended 4 March 1749 by Isaac Biberg (1726‑1804): “Specimen academicum de œconomia naturae, quod, consensu Ampliss. Facult. Med. in Reg. Academia Upsaliensi praeside viro celeberrimo et experientissimo Dn. Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… publico examini modeste submittit Isacus J. Biberg, Medelpadus. In Audit. Carol. Maj. Ad Diem IV. Mart. Anni MDCCXLIX”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 2, pp. 1‑58.]

74 [Linnaean dissertation no. 24, “Description of buds of deciduous trees,” defended 18 November 1749 by Pehr Lofling (1729‑1756): “Gemmae arborum, quas ex cons. experientiss. et nobiliss. Facult. Med. in Reg. Acad. Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri experientissimi et celeberrimi, Dn. Doct. Caroli Linnaei… naturae curiosis examinandas sistit… Petrus Lofling, Medelpadus. In Audit. Carol. Major. Ad Diem 18. Novemb. Anni 1749”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 2, pp. 183‑224.]

75 [Linnaean dissertation no. 114, “An essay on the ontogeny of the flower,” defended 22 December 1760 by Henrik Ullmark (1740‑1771): “Prolepsis plantarum quam, consens. nobil. nec non exper. ord. med. in illustr. Ad Salam, Svion. Athenaeo, praeside, viro nobilissimo atque experientiss. Dn. Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… publico examini submittit Hinricus Ullmark, Vermelandus. In Audit. Car Maj. Die XXII. Decembri Anni MDCCLX”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 6, pp. 324‑341.]

76 [Linnaean dissertation no. 67, “Exposition on plant physiology and morphology,” defended June 1755 by Nils Ericsson Dahlberg (1736‑1820): “Dissertatio botanica metamorphoses plantarum sistens, quam, consent. experientiss. Facultate Medica in Reg. Acad. Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri nobilissimi Dn. Doct. Caroli Linnaei… naturae curiosorum censurae subjicit Nicolaus E. Dahlberg, Ostrogothus. In Audit… Junii, An. 1755”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 368‑386.]

77 [Linnaean dissertation unnumbered, “Memorable things about insects,” defended 3 October 1739 by Abraham Bäck (1713‑1795): “Oratio de memorabilibus in insectis, habita eoram Academia Scientiarum in auditorio illustri, cum primum deponeret Academiae praesidium Ao. MDCCXXXIX, d. 3. Oct., Abrah. Bäck M.D”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 2, pp. 388‑407.]

78 [Linnaean dissertation no. 45, “On miraculous insects,” defended 11 November 1752 by Gabriel Emanuel Avelin (1729‑1775): “Specimen academicum, sistens miracula insectorum, quod, consent. ampliss. facult. medica in Regia Academia Upsal., sub praesido viri nobilissimi atque celeberrimi, Dn. Doct. Caroli Linnaei… publico examini submittit Gabriel Emanuel Avelin, Dalekarlus, in auditorio carol. maj. die xi Novemb. anni MDCCLII”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 3, pp. 313‑334.]

79 [Linnaean dissertation no. 148, “Economic uses of mosses of Sweden,” defended on 17 December 1766 by Andreas Henrici Berlin (1746‑1773): “Dissertatio academica usum muscorum, breviter delineatura, quam cum cons. nob., et experient. fac. med. in perillustri ad salam lyceo. Moderante, viro nobilissimo atque generoso D:no Carolo von Linné…curiosorum submittit censurae alumnus regius Andreas Henrici Berlin, Angermannus, in auditorio carolino majori die XVII. Decembt anni MDCCLXVI”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 7, pp. 330‑384.]

80 [Linnaean dissertation no. 44, “Nurses uncovered” (criticism of the use of wet-nurses, and propagating the idea that mothers should breast feed their babies), defended on 7 November 1752 by Fredericus Lindberg (1733‑1779): “Nutrix noverca, quam indulgente exper. & nobiliss. fac. med. in illustriacad Upsal. praeside viro nobiliss & experient. Dn. Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… breviter specimine academico delineatam publice examinandam sistit Fredericus Lindberg, Sudermannus, in audit. carol. maj. d. VII Novemb. Anni MDCCLII”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 3, pp. 256‑270.]

81 [Linnaean dissertation no. 72, “The calendar of flora” (an enumeration of the flowering times of plants in each of the four seasons, and by month within each season), defended on 31 March 1756 by Alexander Malachias Berger (1737‑1804): Calendarium florae, quod, venia experientissimae Facult. Med. in Almo Upsaliensi Lycaeo, praeside, viro nobilissimo et experientissimo Dn. Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… publicae ventilationi subjicit… Alexander. Mal. Berger, Vermelandus, in Audit. Carol. Maj. D. XXXI. Martii, Anni MDCCLVI”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 387‑414.]

82 [Linnaean dissertation no. 68, “The sleep of plants” (a classification of flowering plants whose flowers open or close in relation to daylight or darkness, or the time of day), defended on 10 December 1755 by Petro Bremer (1731‑1765): “Somnus plantarum, in dissertatione academica propositus, consens, experient. Facult. Med. in reg. acad, Upsaliensi, praeside, viro nobilissimo, Dn. Doct. Carolo Linnaeo… a Petro Bremer, Helsingo, in audit. Gustav, d. X. Decembr. anni MDCCLV”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 333‑350.]

83 [Horologium florae, “The flower clock” (a table of the hours at which forty-six plant species open and close their flowers in the latitude of Uppsala), not a Linnaean dissertation as such but part of Linnaeus’s Philosophia Botanica, published in Stockholm & Amsterdam, 1751, pp. 274‑276.

84 [Linnaean dissertation no. 79, “Bird migrations” (an enumeration of exotic and indigenous birds in Sweden observed during their annual migrations), defended on 2 March 1757 by Carl Daniel Ekmarck (1734‑1789): “Migrationes avium, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 565‑600.]

85 [Linnaean dissertation no. 54, “Canis familiaris” (an account of the domesticated dog, said to be Linnaeus’s first complete zoological description, based on the format prescribed by him in his “Methodus demonstrandi”), defended on 21 December 1753 by Eric Magnus Lindecrantz (1729‑1788): “Canis familiaris, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 43‑63.]

86 [Linnaean dissertation no. 60, “On the reindeer” (history of the reindeer, an animal of vital importance to inhabitants of Lapland and other arctic areas), defended on 23 October 1754 by Carl Fredrik Hoffberg (1729‑1790): “Cervus tarandus, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 4, pp. 144‑168.]

87 [Linnaean dissertation no. 132, “Food plants of Sweden” (on edible and economic plants of Sweden, their culture and hardiness; those then in use and others suggested), defended 22 June 1764 by Jonas Carl Tengborg (1740‑1788): “Hortus culinaris, praesidio D. D. Car. Von Linné”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 7, pp. 18‑41.]

88 [Linnaean dissertation no. 93, “Pandora insectorum” (on the metamorphosis of insects, with an enumeration of Swedish plants on which they feed), defended on 15 July 1758 by Eric Olof Rydbeck (1732‑1795): “Pandora insectorum, quam, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei”. In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 5, pp. 232‑252.]

89 [Linnaean dissertation no. 111, “Anthropomorpha” (on four species of the genus Simia, considered by Linnaeus to include most apes and monkeys, controversial for its alliance of humans with the apes), defended on 6 September 1760 by Christian Emmanuel Hoppius (1736-?): “Anthropomorpha, quam, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei.” In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 6, pp. 63‑76.]

90 [Linnaean dissertation no. 146, “Siren lacertina” (on the two-legged siren lizard of South Carolina, sometimes called the Carolina mud iguana), defended on 21 June 1766 by Abraham Österdam (1745‑1776): “Siren lacertina, quam, sub praesidio D. D. Car. Linnaei.” In Caroli Linnaei… Amœnitates Academicae…, vol. 7, pp. 311‑325.]

91 [Alexander Garden, see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 99.]

92 [Siren lacertina, the Greater Siren, an aquatic, eel-like amphibian, the largest of the three species of the genus Siren and one of the largest amphibians in North America found in the coastal plains of the southeastern United States (see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 99).]

93 [Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 14.]

94 [Johann Friedrich Gmelin, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 56.]

95 [The egg of Columbus refers to a brilliant idea or discovery that seems simple or easy after the fact. The expression refers to an apocryphal story, dating from at least the fifteenth century, in which it is said that Christopher Columbus, having been told that finding a new trade route was inevitable and no great accomplishment, challenges his critics to make an egg stand on its tip. After his challengers give up, Columbus does it himself by tapping the egg on the table to flatten its tip.]

96 [Gardens of the Trianon, a botanic garden, developed initially by Louis XV during the 1750s, situated in the northwestern part of the Domain of Versailles, France, and surrounding the Grand Trianon, a château built in 1687 as a family retreat for Louis XIV. By the time of Louis XV’s death in 1774, the Trianon gardens were among the most beautiful and most richly stocked botanical gardens in Europe. For Louis XV, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 40.]

97 [Kew Gardens, a botanic garden in southwest London that houses the largest and most diverse botanical and mycological collections in the world. Founded in 1840, from the exotic garden at Kew Park in Middlesex, England, its living collections includes some of the 27,000 taxa curated by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, while the herbarium, which is one of the largest in the world, has over 8.5 million preserved plant and fungal specimens. The library contains more than 750,000 volumes, and the image collection contains more than 175,000 prints and drawings of plants. It is one of London’s top tourist attractions and is a World Heritage Site. For George III, see Volume 3, Lesson 1, note 42.]

98 [Schönbrunn garden, a sprawling botanic garden surrounding Schönbrunn Palace, the main summer residence of the Habsburg rulers, located in Hietzing, in the district of Vienna, Austria, and extending for 1.2 km from east to west and approximately 1.0 km from north to south. Originally used as a hunting ground by the Habsburgs, the gardens were eventually transformed into a picturesque Baroque complex under Franz I Stephan of Lorraine. It was placed together with the Schönbrunn Palace on the list of World Heritage Sites in 1996. Franz I (born 8 December 1708, Nancy; died 18 August 1765, Innsbruck), was Duke of Lorraine (1729‑1736), Grand Duke of Tuscany (from 1737), official co-ruler with his wife Maria Theresa in the Habsburg Monarchy (from 1740), and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (from 1745).]

99 [Gustav III (born 24 January 1746, Stockholm; died 29 March 1792, Stockholm Palace), King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792. He was the eldest son of Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden and Queen Louise Ulrika (a sister of King Frederick the Great of Prussia), and a first cousin of Empress Catherine the Great of Russia by reason of their common descent from Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin, and his wife Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.]

100 [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, see Volume 2, Lesson 4, note 57; see also Volume 1, Lesson 7, note 39.]