1 R. W. Seton-Watson, “Austria and Her Neighbours,” Slavonic and East European Review 13, no. 39 (1935): 549.

2 Helmut Gruber, Red Vienna: Experiment in Working-Class Culture 1919-1934 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Jill Lewis, “Red Vienna: Socialism in One City 1918-1927,” European Studies Review 13 (1983): 335-55.

3 See, for example, Helmut Konrad and Wolfgang Maderthaner, eds., Das Werden der Ersten Republik... der Rest ist Österreich, 2 vols. (Vienna: Carl Gerold’s Sohn, 2008).

4 Charles Gulick, Austria from Habsburg to Hitler, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1948) remains unmatched in terms of scale and range. F. L Carsten, The First Austrian Republic 1918-1938: A Study Based on British and Austrian Documents (Aldershot: Gower, 1986) is a manageable scholarly overview in English (and much of volume two comprises lengthy analyses of first Austro-Marxism and “clerical-fascism”). Tom Bottomore and Patrick Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978) provides an anthology of excerpts from the work of leading Austrian Marxists. Günter Bischof, Anton Pelinka, and Alexander Lassner, eds., The Dollfuss/Schuschnigg Era in Austria: A Reassessment, Contemporary Austrian Studies 11 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 2003) in this series provides the most recent overview of “Austrofascism” in English. Norbert Leser, Zwischen Reformismus und Bolschewismus: Der Austromarxismus als Theorie und Praxis (Vienna: Europa Verlag, 1968) provides a wide-ranging account of Austro-Marxism in German; and the revised edition of Emmerich Tálos and Wolfgang Neugebauer, eds., Austrofaschismus: Politik — Ökonomie — Kultur 1933-1938, 5th ed. (Vienna: Lit, 2005) provides the most recent and wide-ranging collection of material on Austrofascism in German.

5 Otto Bauer, “What is Austro-Marxism,” in Bottomore and Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 45. The term was rarely used after the war. See also Paul Pasteur, Pratiques politiques et militants de la social-démocratie autrichienne 1888-1934 (Paris: Belin, 2003), 66.

6 See Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, vol. 2, The Golden Age (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 240-43; Bottomore and Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism, 8-15.

7 Synopticus, Staat und Nation (Vienna, 1899) and Rudolf Springer, Der Kampf der österreichischen Nationen um den Staat (Vienna, 1902), cited in Norbert Leser, “Austro-Marxism: A Reappraisal,” Journal of Contemporary History 11, nos. 2-3 (1976): 133-48. See also Günther Sandner, “Austromarxismus und Multikulturalismus: Karl Renner und Otto Bauer zur Nationalitätenfrage im Habsburgerstaat,” published by Kakanien Revisited, < www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/fallstudie/GSandner1.pdf >.

8 Ephraim Nimni, “Nationalist Multiculturalism in Late Imperial Austria as a Critique of Contemporary Liberalism: The Case of Bauer and Renner,” Journal of Political Ideologies 4, no. 3 (1999): 297-99.

9 Bottomore and Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism, 31. Nationalist ideologues on the right disparaged the “Nationalitätenstaaten ” that emerged in East Central Europe after 1918. See Herbert Scurla, Die Dritte Front: Geistige Grundlagen des Propagandakrieges der Westmächte (Berlin: Herbert Stubenrauch, 1940), cited in Tim Kirk,“Deutsche Kulturpolitik und öffentliche Meinung in Südosteuropa: Die Wiener Presse-und Kulturberichte Südosteuropas,” in “Mitteleuropa” und “Südosteuropa” als Planungsraum: Wirtschafts-und kulturpolitische Expertisen im Zeitalter der Weltkriege, ed. Carola Sachse (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2010), 202.

10 See Oscar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 177-85. Jaszi’s famous analysis of the problems of the last years of Austria-Hungary was first published in English in 1929. Gulick, Austria from Habsburg to Hitler, 1370.

11 Otto Bauer, Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie (Vienna, 1907); translated as Otto Bauer, The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy, edited with an introduction by Ephraim J. Nimmi and translated by Joseph O’Donnell (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000).

12 The discussion of these points is lengthy and in some respects now seems very outdated: Bauer, The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy, 19-36. See also the very different summaries of Bauer’s position in Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, vol. 2, 285-90, where it is located in a history of Marxist thought; and Nimmi’s introduction to the English translation, The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy, xv-xlv, which explicitly avoids discussion of the book’s position in Marxist ideology to concentrate on its contemporary applicability.

13 Raimund Loew, “The Politics of Austro-Marxism,” New Left Review I/118 (1979): 22.

14 See Robert C. Tucker, Stalin: A Revolutionary 1879-1929: A Study in History and Personality (London: Chatto and Windus, 1974), 150-57; and Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 32. I am grateful to my colleague David Saunders for drawing these references to my attention.

15 Archiv der Republik, Ministerratsprotokolle, Nov. 1918.

16 See Andrew Arato, “Austromarxism and the Theory of Democracy,” in The Austrian Socialist Experiment: Social Democracy and Austromarxism, 1918-1934, ed. Anson Rabinbach (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), 135-40.

17 Leser, Zwischen Reformismus und Bolschewismus, 296-300.

18 Stenographisches Protokoll des Parteitages der sozialdemokratischen Arbeiterpartei, 31 Oct. to 1 Nov. 1918, 110-12, cited in F. L. Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe 1918-1919 (Aldershot: Wildwood House, 1988), 31-32.

19 Memorandum from Lord Acton to Earl Curzon, 12 Apr. 1919, BDFA II F 1 Doc 8, 8-9.

20 Resolutions passed at the Congress of the Social Democratic Party of German Austria. Inclosure in letter from Mr. Lindley to Lord Curzon, Vienna, 7 Nov. 1919. British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series F, Vol. 1, Central Europe 1919-1922, Doc 21 [150809], 33-34.

21 Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe, 302.

22 Bauer, “What is Austro-Marxism,” 46.

23 Otto Bauer, Die österreichische Revolution (Vienna: Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1923), translated as The Austrian Revolution (London: Leonard Parsons, 1925).

24 Loew, “The Politics of Austro-Marxism.”

25 See David Beetham, Marxists in the Face of Fascism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983).

26 Report by Colonel de Ligny, French officer of the Inter-Allied Control Commission. Inclosure in letter from Mr. Lindsay to Earl Curzon, 11 Jan. 1921. British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series F, Vol. 1, Central Europe 1919-1922, Doc 146 [C 1168/716/3].

27 Ludwig Jedlicka, “The Austrian Heimwehr,” Journal of Contemporary History 1, no. 1 (1966): 127-44; Bruce Pauley, Hahnenschwanz und Hakenkreuz: Steirischer Heimatschutz und österreichischer Nationalsozialismus 1918-1934 (Vienna: Europa Verlag, 1972), 33-46.

28 Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg, Between Hitler and Mussolini: Memoirs of Ernst Rüdiger Prince Starhemberg: Former Vice Chancellor of Austria (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1942).

29 Robert Gerwarth, “The Central European Counter-Revolution: Paramilitary Violence in Germany, Austria and Hungary after the Great War,” Past & Present 200, no. 1 (2008): 170-80. On the peasantry and the Heimwehr, see the review article by Franziska Schneeberger, “Heimwehr und Bauern — Ein Mythos,” Zeitgeschichte 16, no. 4 (1989): 135-45.

30 Gerwarth, “The Central European Counter-Revolution,” 183-84; Jedlicka, “The Austrian Heimwehr,” 129-30; and Ludger Rape, Die österreichischen Heimwehren und die bayerische Rechte 1920-1923 (Vienna: Europa Verlag, 1977).

31 See Lajos Kerekes, Abenddämmerung einer Demokratie: Mussolini, Gömbös und die Heimwehr (Vienna: Europa Verlag, 1966) on the role of Hungary and Italy in the destruction of Austrian democracy.

32 See Helmut Wohnout, Regierungsdiktatur oder Ständeparlament: Gesetzgebung im autoritären Österreich (Vienna: Böhlau, 1993), 20-23.

33 See John Haag,“Marginal Men and the Dream of the Reich: Eight Austrian National-Catholic Intellectuals,” in Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism, ed. Stein Ugelvik Larsen, Bernt Hagtvet, and Jan Petter Myklebust (Bergen: Universitetsforlaget, 1980), 239-48; Robert Stöger, “Der christliche Führer und die ‘ wahre Demokratie’: Zu den Demokratiekonzeptionen von Ignaz Seipel,” Archiv 2 (1988): 54-67; and Wohnout, Regierungsdiktatur oder Ständeparlament, 24-32.

34 Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918-1945 (London: Routledge, 1997), 47-77 (esp. 48).

35 Emmerich Tálos and Walter Manoschek, “Zum Konstituierungsprozeß des Austrofaschismus,” in Austrofaschismus, ed. Tálos and Neugebauer, 7-25; and Carsten, The First Austrian Republic 1918-1938, 151-78.

36 See the brief survey of then available assessments in Karl R. Stadler, Austria (London: Ernest Benn, 1971), 126. He reminds us that Nolte’s Faschismus in seiner Epoche distinguished between “Heimwehr fascism” and the “Austrofascism of Dollfuss,” and that Carsten, while hesitating to designate the “corporate state” fascist, used the term “clerico-fascist” to describe a number of regimes, from Portugal and Austria to Slovakia.

37 Gulick, Austria from Habsburg to Hitler, 1403-570; Klaus-Jörg Siegfried, Klerikalfaschismus: Zur Entstehung und sozialen Funktion des Dollfußregimes in Österreich: Ein Beitrag zur Faschismusdiskussion (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1979); more recently: Robert Pyrah, “Enacting Encyclicals? Cultural Politics and ‘ Clerical Fascism’in Austria, 1933-1938,” in Clerical Fascism in Interwar Europe, ed. Matthew Feldmann and Marius Turda (London: Routledge, 2008), 158-70.

38 Wohnout, Regierungsdiktatur oder Ständeparlament, 44-56.

39 Cited in F. L. Carsten, Fascist Movements in Austria from Schönerer to Hitler (London: Sage, 1977), 172.

40 Diamant makes a telling point about the tendency of Western observers that expect an identification of conservatives with an anti-state intervention, business-friendly ideology, whereas continental European conservatism was often “étatiste.” Alfred Diamant, “Austrian Catholics and the First Republic, 1918-1934: A Study in Anti-Democratic Thought,” Western Political Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1957): 606.

41 Wohnout, Regierungsdiktatur oder Ständeparlament, 305-20.

42 See, for example, Margarethe Lasinger, “Wie modern war doch die Biedermeierzeit: ‘ die pause’und andere Kulturzeitschriften im Ständestaat,” in Kunst und Diktatur: Architektur, Bildhauerei und Malerei in Österreich, Deutschland, Italien und der Sowjetunion 1922-1956, vol. 1, ed. Jan Tabor (Baden: Grasl, 1994), 260-74.

43 Adolf Sturmthal, “Austromarxism on the International Scene,” in The Austrian Socialist Experiment, ed. Rabinbach, 177-85; Leser, “Austro-Marxism,” 136-37.

44 For example Bottomore and Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism; Yvon Bourdet, Otto Bauer et la révolution (Paris, 1968); Hans-Jörg Sandkühler, Austromarxismus: Texte zu Ideologie und Klassenkampf von Otto Bauer (Frankfurt: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1970).

45 See, for example, Raimund Löw, Siegfried Mattl, and Alfred Pfabigan, Der Austromarxismus: Eine Autopsie: Drei Studien (Frankfurt: isp-Verlag, 1986); Loew,“The Politics of Austro-Marxism”; and Pasteur, Pratiques politiques et militants de la social-démocratie autrichienne, 66-70.

46 See, for example, the apologia for the dictatorship by Brendan Lawler, “Dollfuss and his work,” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 26, no. 101 (1937): 78-88.

47 J. D. Gregory, Dollfuss and his Times (London: Hutchinson, 1935); and Gordon Brook Shepherd, Dollfuss (London: Macmillan, 1961). The theme of Dollfuss biographies is dealt with by Lucile Dreidemy, “Dollfuß-Biographien: Zwischen Mythos und Geschichte,” unpublished paper presented at the German Studies Association, Washington, 2009.

48 Tálos and Neugebauer, eds., Austrofaschismus has reset the agenda in this respect. An earlier volume in the Contemporary Austrian Studies series has taken the issue outside Austria: Bischof, Pelinka, and Lassner, eds., The Dollfuss/Schuschnigg Era in Austria (see especially Tim Kirk, “Fascism and Austrofascism”). See also Florian Weininger, “Fascism or Authoritarian Rule? The Representation of the Dollfuss-Schuschnigg Regime in U. S. Historiography,” unpublished paper presented at the German Studies Association, Washington, 2009. A version of this paper and that of Lucile Dreidemy will be published in Ilse Reiter-Zatloukal, Christiane Rothländer, and Pia Schölnberger, eds., Österreich 1933-1938: Juristisch-historische Bestandsaufnahmen und Perspektiven (forthcoming).