The Archaeology of Christianity in Egypt (2016–2022)
p. 239-262
Texte intégral
Introduction
1Archaeological investigations have found traces of Christian people throughout Egypt, detected not only at monasteries but also at the non-monastic settlements, ports and defensive installations forming the lived experience of most Egyptians. This report presents an overview of recent archaeological findings (Section 1), and reviews methodological (Section 2) and cultural heritage developments (Section 3) with a brief conclusion.
Excavation/study, conservation and survey
2This tour of recent work proceeds north to south from the Mediterranean coastal region and Nile delta, the Nile valley, then moves to the Fayoum, Western Desert and oases, and finally the Eastern Desert and Red Sea coast.
Mediterranean coast to Nile delta
3Excavation of the portico at Kōm al-Dikka in Alexandria has revealed the installation of a monumental gate in Late Antiquity.1 A substantial 4th–5th-century refuse deposit nearby has yielded rich finds of pottery and glass, with evidence of glass production.2 Studies of material culture focus on the manufacture of ivory and bone objects, and North African amphora imports.3
4Recent investigations at Taposiris Magna have focused on the baths, comparable in style and date to those at nearby Marea. Ceramic evidence shows that these went out of use in the late 6th to 7th century, when the settlement was a vibrant trading nexus. Later refurbishment of the baths indicates that the town was abandoned some decades after the Arab conquest.4 The archaeology of the port and urban centre of Marea/Philoxenite, on the southern margin of Lake Maryūṭ, confirms its continued use into the early medieval period and that it was a major stopping point on the pilgrimage route to Abū Mīnā.5 Abū Mīnā itself remains active through publication, most recently of the architecture of the market place and the site’s ceramic history.6 In the Wādī al-Naṭrūn, survey at the Monastery of Saint Macarius has investigated the dwellings of its hinterland.7
5Survey of the north western and northern Delta continues to reveal the dynamics of change within the physical and built landscape, the west Delta settlements declining due to the silting of the Canopic branch of the Nile.8 The reconstruction of life in the northern Delta in Late Antiquity has been possible through the locating of settlements and monasteries.9 Survey at Tinnīs in Lake Manzala, best known as a medieval textile manufacturing centre, has detected the presence of at least one church and evidence of domestic activity at this time.10 Excavations at Kōm al-Aḥmar/Kōm Wāsiṭ have allowed a diachronic view of a Delta settlement in microcosm, including a tower house, cistern, material culture and animal remains of the late antique and early medieval periods.11
Nile valley
6The Christian footprint at Oxyrhynchus comprises a basilica church that once had carved stone features, and a religious building with adjacent cemetery with grave markers bearing carved crosses.12 Publication of the archaeology of Antinoupolis continues, the latest volume presenting ceramic, glass, stone and textile finds,13 as well as reused and scattered stone architectural fragments.14 A re-examination of the Tomb of Theodosia at Antinoe combines archaeological and forensic anthropological techniques.15
7Bawit still provides rich archaeological data from recent and historical excavations.16 A comprehensive treatment of the Church of the Archangel Michael (“North Church”) includes its archaeology,17 material culture18 and built environment,19 scientific analyses and conservation.20 The detailed investigation of the wooden architectural elements and fittings, generally under-represented due to their poor survival, is of particular importance.21
8The intensive monastic settlement (including Dayr al-ʿAẓām) and pilgrimage activities of the late antique and medieval periods at Asyūṭ al-Gharbī are characterised through excavation and survey.22 Ceramic culture gives insights into modes of living and highlights Asyūṭ al-Gharbī as a nexus on caravan routes linking the Nile valley and Western Desert.23 Work at Manqabad, a late antique re-occupation of an abandoned Roman settlement, is establishing the components of its built environment and investigating its ceramic culture.24
9In Sohag, the long-running conservation programme of the Red Monastery church (begun in 2002), including documentation of the church and archaeological areas by 3D terrestrial laser scanning, is now complete (Fig. 1).25 This technique has also been used at the White Monastery, where the current focus is on conservation work within the church.26 Archaeological and epigraphic evidence at Atripe confirms the presence of the Federation’s women’s monastery.27 The Federation-wide monastic lived experience has been investigated through its archaeology.28 Christian Abydos is delineated through work at Umm al-Ǧaʿāb,29 the North Cemetery,30 the Monastery of Apa Moses,31 and the Shūnat al-Zabīb.32 A new hermitage in the high desert has also been identified.33 These new findings contribute to a textured view of Christian activities in the Thinite region in Late Antiquity.34
Figure 1
3D terrestrial laser scanning of the Red Monastery Church. Top: Worm’s eye perspective of triconch. Middle: Sectional perspective through triconch and nave, looking north. Bottom: Section through triconch and nave looking south. Image modified from ARCE Bulletin 209 (2017).
Images produced by CPT Studio. © American Research Center in Cairo. All rights reserved.
10A new phase of excavations at Dayr al-Bakhīt in Western Thebes began in 2016, investigating questions relating to the hierarchical relationships between and within its three component complexes. Investigation of social structures within the monastery focussed on monastic cells and burials.35 Careful consideration of a pigeon tower at the Ramesseum and its parallels at Medinet Habu and the Kharǧa oasis has led to surprising insights into the utilisation and negotiation of pre-Christian spaces.36 In Eastern Thebes, the late antique repopulation of Karnak is beginning to receive attention, re-evaluating the mud brick structures, pottery and other traces throughout the temple area.37
11Material culture and bioarchaeology feature strongly in recent multi-disciplinary research at the settlements of the First Cataract region. The urban lifestyle of the inhabitants of late antique Syene, the built environment of which was dominated by tower-houses, is characterised through discarded material culture and animal bones, as well as their burials.38 The ceramic assemblage of the Qubbat al-Hawā monastic foundation has been examined, 39and its church documented photogrammetrically.40 Investigative programme at the Monastery of Saint Simeon (Dayr Anbā Hadrā) included study of excavated bioarchaeological remains, finds and pottery, an archaeo-architectural survey of the church and workshops, and conservation.41 At the fortified village (not fortress) of Ḥiṣn al-Bāb, the contents of a storeroom and archery equipment associated with conflict towards (and perhaps contributing to) the demise of the settlement has shown it to have a strong Nubian connection (Fig. 2 and 3).42
Figure 2
Arrows found at the fortified settlement of Hisn al-Bab. Image from Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien 87 (2018).
Illustration by Pieter Collet (© ÖAI/ÖAW. All rights reserved).
Figure 3
Tanged iron arrowheads found at the fortified settlement of Hisn al-Bab.
Photograph by Gwil Owen (© ÖAI/ÖAW. All rights reserved).
Fayoum, Western Desert and Oases
12In the Fayoum, the South Kōm at Bakchias has yielded important evidence for late antique and early medieval settlement, perhaps including a monastery, in the northern Fayoum. The habitation drift from the North to the South Kōm and Bakchias’ eventual failure was due to the decline of the water supply.43 At Dayr al-Naqlūn newly excavated hermitages (EE.06 and EE.50) continue to place this mode of living in the late antique period.44 Evaluation of building elements and finds from Building D supports the presence of a library in an upper storey.45 Close scrutiny of evidence of burning throughout the Upper Plateau suggests a conflagration, originating in Building A, at the very end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century.46 At Wādī al-Rayān in the southwestern Fayoum, the remains of the Monastery of Saint Macarius of Alexandria and the possible Dayr Zakāwa are reported.47
13The 4th-century hermitages at Ǧanūb Qaṣr al-ʿAǧūz in the Baḥriyya Oasis suggest a footprint in the oases early in the transmission of monasticism in Egypt.48 Archaeological survey has revealed that activities in late antique north Kharǧa combined agriculture, mineral exploitation, settlement, and monastic foundations of various types. The 5th-century decline, especially in the north, was due to the lowering water table, progressive desertification and decreasing administrative authority.49
14In the Dakhla Oasis, the architecture, material culture and bioarchaeology of ʿAyn al-Ǧadīda support its identification as a Christian hamlet (Fig. 4 and 5).50 This modest agricultural settlement contrasts with the contemporary urban centre of Amḥayda (Trimithis) and especially the elite house of Serenos, the architecture and ceramic assemblage of which has been recently characterised.51 The flat ceiling of the funerary crypt of the 4th-century church (Building 7) has complex painted geometric decoration rooted in the Hellenistic-Roman artistic tradition.52
Figure 4
‘Ain al-Gedida. Google site view (looking north west), with superimposed archaeological plan. Image from ‘Ain el-Gedida, 2006-2008.
Image produced by Bruno Bazzani (© Nicola Aravecchia. All rights reserved).
Figure 5
View of the southern half of Mound I at ‘Ain al-Gedida, looking north east. Image from American Journal of Archaeology 124 (2020)
© Nicola Aravecchia. All rights reserved.
Eastern Desert and Red Sea coast
15The extensive early 4th-century monastic settlement and church of Dayr Wādī al-Naqqāṭ, some 7 km from the Qena-Abū Shaʿar route, has been newly surveyed and documented.53 The pre-church ceramic sequence at the Monastery of Saint Antony gives insights into egalitarian dining, home production and engagement with ceramic cultural trends, and acquisition of non-local products.54 International trade through the port of Berenike in Late Antiquity is seen through the lens of beads produced in Egypt, the Mediterranean region and Indian Ocean and consumed and discarded by the local inhabitants and those of Shanshaf on the trade route to Nubia.55
Methods of work, thought and presentation
162016–2022 has seen methodological developments that increase and improve the understanding of Egyptian Christians of the past. Dialogues within archaeological field practice and with other disciplines address matters of stratigraphy, context and dating.56 Digital archaeology is increasingly indispensable as an investigative and presentational tool, allowing previously impossible visualisations and reconstructions of archaeological landscapes, buildings and objects (Fig. 1 and 4).57 Scientific analyses provide vital insights into materials and technologies.58 Site publications include material culture and bioarchaeology, contributing significantly to the reconstruction of localised lived experience.59 Digital platforms, including websites, YouTube and Facebook, disseminate findings to a wide audience with immediacy and informality.
17Thematic studies explore the past lived experience of Christians in Egypt, with D. Brooks Hedstrom’s 2017 The Monastic Landscape of Late Antique Egypt: An Archaeological Reconstruction a significant positioning piece.60 Situating Christian people and their activities within households, settlements and the wider landscape is a major theme.61 As monasteries are re-embedded into an Egypt filled with other Christian people, the identification of a settlement as a monastery is now a question rather than a given.62 Food attitudes, production, management and consumption practices are a hot topic.63 Clothing, its production, use and repair, as well as textiles for architectural settings are also in the spotlight.64
Christian cultural heritage
18The fragility of Egypt’s Christian cultural heritage is increasingly in mind, especially in light of recent losses.65 A wall collapse (1 December 2019) at the church Dayr Abu Fānā, near Mallawī, reportedly killed three and injured four of the congregation.66 A conservation project has begun at the White Monastery church following the fall of part of the south face of the north wall (6 January 2022), in which no one was hurt (Fig. 6 and 7).67 Deliberate destruction and looting have been reported at Christian sites throughout Egypt, escalating during the Covid pandemic and set to continue due to socio-economic pressures.68
Figure 6
Collapsed portion of north wall of the Church of St Shenoute at the White Monastery, looking north east.
Photograph by Gillian Pyke. © Yale Monastic Archaeology Project. All rights reserved.
Figure 7
North wall of the Church of St Shenoute at the White Monastery, looking north west, with steel support structure.
© Mustafa Ali Abd al-Karim. All rights reserved.
Conclusion
19Excavation and survey continue to extend the understanding of the archaeology of Christianity in Egypt. Trends visible in the 2016–2022 research reflect significant shifts in approach and thinking – a healthy sign that this is a dynamic discipline. Field archaeology has seen the development of new methods, resources and dialogues in its practice. Material culture and bioarchaeology are now recognised as fundamental tools in reconstructing lived experience, allowing the exploration of new themes such as Christian identity, household and food culture. Innovative modes of presentation and new perspectives have emerged to enrich the discipline and its reception. Digital platforms are increasingly used as methods of engagement with a wide international audience. A common theme through all this work is that there is a greater emphasis on Christian people: the lives and culture of ancient Christians that is part of the cultural heritage of modern Egyptian Christians. Above all other things, recent work in Egypt shows that to protect archaeology in the future, greater local engagement with the past is needed.
Bibliographie
References marked with an asterisk in the following bibliography are listed in full in the general bibliography.69
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Notes de bas de page
1Majcherek & Kucharczyk 2016, p. 47, 54–56, 1 and 15.
2Majcherek 2018, p. 46–56.
3Rodziewicz 2017; Bonifay, Capelli & Şenol 2017.
4Redon 2019, p. 122; Le Bomin 2016.
5Babraj & Tarara 2017; Wielgosz-Rondolino & Gwiazda 2016; Gwiazda & Wielgosz-Rondolino 2019; Gwiazda & Derda 2021; Schwartz 2019.
6Kościuk 2019; Kościuk & Cichocka 2018, p. 3–20; Engemann 2016; Arnold 2018.
7Innemée 2014–2016.
8 https://www.durham.ac.uk/departments/academic/archaeology/research/archaeology-research-projects/nile-delta-survey-project/; Hinojosa-Baliño, E. Tiribilli & P. Wilson 2019.
9Wilson 2017, p. 345–368.
10Gascoigne, Cooper, Harrison, Strutt & Stephens 2020, p. 96–97, fig. 5.47; Pyke 2020, p. 179–252; Pyke & Gascoigne 2020, p. 254, fig. 10.2.
11Marchiori 2019; Kenawi & Marchiori 2019; Kenawi & Marchiori 2019; Asolati & Mondin 2019; Mondin 2019; Furlan 2019, p. 295–297, 309; Bertini 2019.
12Padró, Agustí, Algorri, Amer, Burgaya, Castellano, Erroux-Morfin, López, Martínez García, Mascort, Munard, Perraud, Pons, Recasens & Riudavets 2017, p. 3–4, 9–11, fig. 1–6, 24; Padró, Agustí, Algorri, Amer, Burgaya, Castellano, Erroux-Morfin, López, Martínez García, Mascort, Munard, Perraud, Pons, Recasens & Riudavets 2019, p. 5–6, fig. 9.
13Borgia 2017; Guidotti 2017; Silvano 2017; Spanu 2017; Guidotti & Silvano 2017. See also Silvano 2017.
14Castellucci 2017; Heidel 2017.
15Borrini & Mariani 2017.
16Hadji-Minaglou 2016; Rochard 2016; Chassinat 2019.
17Bénazeth & Meurice 2021; Bovot 2021.
18Marchand 2021; Bénazeth 2021; Bénazeth 2021.
19Meurice 2016, p. 659–669; Bénazeth 2021; Bénazeth 2021; Bénazeth 2021, p. 267–269; Bénazeth 2021; Mossakowska-Gaubert 2021.
20Bénazeth 2021; Dupéron 2021; Gilbaud 2021; Nageh 2021.
21Minart 2017; Minart & Bénazeth 2017.
22Eichner 2020. See also Kahl, Alansary, Verhoeven, Beck, Czyżewska-Zalewska & Kilian 2017; Kahl, El-Hamrawi & Verhoeven, 2018; Kahl, El-Hamrawi, Verhoeven, Buhlke, Garzón Rodríguez, Gervers, Kilian & Zöller-Engelhardt 2021.
23Rzeuska 2017. See also Beckh 2020; Beckh 2020.
24Pirelli 2018; Pirelli 2018; Salsano 2017; Incordino 2020.
25Warner & Bolman 2017; Warner 2020.
26Davis, Gasparri, Pyke & Warner 2021 and https://egyptology.yale.edu/expeditions/white-monastery-project/area-1; Davis, Pyke & Warner 2016, p. 34–41.
27Davis 2020.
28Blanke 2019; Davis 2022; Müller 2019, p. 35, 45, 50–51, 60–64, 66–67, fig. 56, 110, 113–134; Müller & Müller 2019; Lehmann 2019; Pyke 2019a, p. 243–250, 264, 277–281, fig. 8–9, 21; Pyke 2019b; Abul Yazid, Hammam, Abderrahman & el-Qadi 2019, p. 433–435, fig. 12, 15.
29Effland 2020.
30Gosner & Bestock 2020.
31Damarany & Abdallah 2020.
32Adams 2020.
33McCormack & Westerfeld 2020.
34O’Connell 2020; Frankfurter 2020.
35Eichner 2017, p. 39, 42–45, fig. 5–6, 8–12; Eichner 2018, p. 28, 32–33, fig. 10; Eichner 2019, p. 36–40, fig. 5–7.
36Serdiuk 2020.
37Serdiuk 2016; Serdiuk 2017; Ghaly 2017; David 2017.
38Müller & Hepa 2016; Müller 2017; Müller 2018; Fünfschilling 2017; Keller 2017; Hepa 2017; Hepa & Torallas Tovar 2018, p. 25–31; Martin-Kilcher & Wininger 2017, p. 72–74, 84–89, 124–238, 282–300; Sigl 2017; Sigl 2017; Nováček, Scheelen-Nováček, Hepa, Schultz, Von Pilgrim & Müller 2019.
39Barba Colmenero, Jiménez Serrano & Martínez de Dios 2017, p. 83–134; Barba Colmenero & Auber de Lapierre 2019.
40Mozas-Calvache, Pérez-García, Barba-Colmenero & Jiménez-Serrano 2019.
41Richter 2017; Bodenstein 2019, p. 23–24, fig. 2.
42Rose, Pyke, Clapham & Lehmann 2023; Rose 2018.
43Buzi 2020, p. 84–96; Buzi, Bogdani, Colonna & Rossetti 2019, p. 77–78.
44Godlewski, Danys & Maślak 2016, p. 278–286; Godlewski 2017; Danys 2017.
45Zych 2016; Godlewski, Danys & Maślak 2016, p. 266–276, fig. 1–11.
46Maślak 2016, p. 149–186. See also Ryś, 2017, p. 787–794.
47Eissa, Saied & Elnaggar 2016.
48Ghica 2019; Ghica, Williams, Medieta & Schram 2021.
49Warner 2018a; Warner & Gascoigne 2018; Ikram, Gascoigne & Warner 2018; Gascoigne 2018a, p. 271–307; Warner 2018b; Gascoigne 2018b; Warner 2018c; Ikram, Warner, Lazaridis, Warder, Cook, Boyer & Bunbury 2021.
50Aravecchia 2018, p. 37–284; Aravecchia 2021; Dixneuf 2018; Dzierzbicka 2018; Ratzan 2018,; Crabtree & Campana 2018.
51Davoli 2019; Davoli 2022; Caputo 2020.
52Aravecchia 2020a.
53Ciglenečki 2020.
54Blid, el-Antony, Lundhaug, Zaborowski, Polliack, Gobezie Worku & Rubenson 2016.
55Then-Obłuska 2018, p. 218–221, 226–227, 230–231, fig. 8–10, 13.
56Ast & Davoli 2017; Bagnall, Caputo, Casagrade-Kim & Soto 2017; Bagnall & Davoli 2019; Luijendijk 2019.
57Warner & Bolman 2017; Rossi & Fiorillo 2018; Mozas-Calvache, Pérez-García, Barba-Colmenero & Jiménez-Serrano 2019; Schwartz 2019; Davis, Gasparri, Pyke & Warner 2021.
58Katzjäger, Peloschek & Rembart 2016; Osman, Bartz & Kosciuk 2016; Abd-Elkareem, Mohamed & El-Sheikh 2017; Ahmed, Mashaly, Shalaby & Rashwan 2017; Peloschek & Katzjäger 2017; Pyke & Ownby 2016; Abdelaal 2018, p. 429–438; Dyer, Tamburini, O’Connell & Harrison 2018; Osman 2019; Verhecken-Lammens & Karapanagiotis 2019; Mabrouk 2020; Chavanne, Toalen, Fronty, Buléon & Walter 2022, p. 7674–7682.
59Pintaudi (ed.) 2017; Aravecchia 2018; Rossi & Ikram (ed.), 2018; Asolati, Crisafulli & Mondin (ed.) 2019; Kenawi (ed.) 2019; Bénazeth (ed.) 2021. See also S. Martin-Kilcher & J. Wininger 2017; Swift, Stoner & Pudsey 2021.
60Brooks Hedstrom 2017a.
61Blouin 2019; Brooks Hedstrom 2017; Wipszycka 2018; Wipszycka 2019; Brooks Hedstrom 2020, p. 185–205; Dubois 2020; Eichner & Polz (ed.) 2022; Sigl & Tatz, 2022.
62Aravecchia (ed.) 2018, p. 275–283; Aravecchia 2021.
63Brooks Hedstrom 2016; Crabtree & Campana 2016; Dzierzbicka 2016; el-Dorry 2016, p. 55–63; Caracuta, Girolamo, Davoli & Bagnall 2018; Dzierzbicka 2019; Mossakowska-Gaubert 2019; Innemée 2020; Brooks Hedstrom 2023; Pyke 2023; Rose, Pyke, Clapham & Lehmann 2023.
64Pleşa 2017; Fluck 2018; Bogensperger 2019; Köstner 2020, p. 69–80; Sigl 2020; Sigl & Tatz 2022.
65Heale 2020; Innemée 2021. See also Hanna 2020.
66See “Partial Collapse of St Fana Monastery’s Wall Kills 3, Injures 4,” Al-Masry al-Youm, Sunday 1 December 2019, https://cloudflare.egyptindependent.com/partial-collapse-of-saint-fana-monasterys-wall-kills-3-injures-4/.
67Yale Monastic Archaeology Project 2022, personal communication.
68Rossi & Warner 2018, p. 235; Ciglenečki 2020; Monica Hanna 2022, personal communication.
69Detailed thematic bibliography available at https://lla.ulb.be/pdf/PykeArchaeologyinChristian Egypt2016-2022.pdf.
Auteur
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Gillian Pyke
Gillian Pyke is a freelance archaeologist specialising in Egypt’s much neglected later periods, with a particular interest in the ceramic and material culture of ordinary people. She is field director for the Yale Monastic Archaeology Project at the Monastery of John the Little, the White Monastery and Atripe. Her other projects include the Ikhwat Yūsuf Mausoleum, Amarna, Red Monastery, Athribis, Khonsu Temple (Karnak), Dayr al-Ballaṣ and Ḥisn al-Bāb. Her most recent articles have been on food management at the Monastery of John the Little (2023), a store-room at Ḥisn al-Bāb (2023), ceramic culture at Athribis (2024), and the archaeology of the women’s monastery at Atripe (2024). She is finalising publications on the material culture and pottery at the Monastery of John the Little and the Red Monastery.
Gillian Pyke est une archéologue indépendante spécialisée dans les périodes tardives, très négligées, de l’histoire de l’Égypte, avec un intérêt particulier pour la céramique et la culture matérielle des gens ordinaires. Elle est directrice de mission pour le Yale Monastic Archaeology Project au monastère de Jean le Petit, mais aussi au monastère Blanc et à Atripe. Parmi ses autres projets figurent le mausolée d’Ikhwat Yūsuf, Amarna, le monastère Rouge, Athribis, le temple de Khonsou (Karnak), Dayr al-Ballaṣ et Ḥisn al-Bāb. Ses plus récents articles portent sur la gestion alimentaire au monastère de Jean le Petit (2023), sur un entrepôt à Ḥisn al-Bāb (2023), sur la culture céramique à Athribis (2024) et l’archéologie du monastère féminin d’Atripé (2024). Elle achève l’étude et la publication de la culture matérielle et de la poterie mise au jour au monastère de Jean le Petit et au monastère Rouge.
Le texte seul est utilisable sous licence Licence OpenEdition Books. Les autres éléments (illustrations, fichiers annexes importés) sont « Tous droits réservés », sauf mention contraire.
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