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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral Economic liberalism, a way of saving biodiversity ? The participative approach to the management of the resources of protected areas proceeds through a transfer of power to riverain peoples Bibliographie Auteurs

    Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?

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    The Participation of Local Residents in the Management of Natural Resources

    History of the Creation of Protected Areas in West Africa and Recent Developments in Conservation

    Franck Giazzi et Thiou Tanzidani Komlan Tanzidani Komlan Tchamié

    p. 155-162

    Texte intégral Bibliographie Bibliography Auteurs

    Texte intégral

    1The creation of protected areas in Africa as everywhere else is an issue whose origins can be traced to the very roots of the philosophy behind the creation of national parks and is also related to the fundamental issue of their function. In fact, the modern idea of the “national park” dates back to 1870 in the United States. It was in 1872 that Yellowstone was declared a national park in the State of Wyoming in America. After this, many countries followed the example of the Americans in preserving certain portions of their territory for their natural beauty, flora, fauna, geology, geomorphology, etc. The legal concept of protected areas was introduced in French West Africa with the decree of March 10, 1925, that set up refuge parks ; the decree of April 16, 1926 by the Governor-General created 15 national parks. It was this decree that drew up certain conditions concerning the regulation of hunting and created refuge parks in French West Africa. In 1933, the Conference of London for the protection of flora and fauna encouraged the creation of national parks and reserves. It was mainly during the period between the two world wars that the colonial powers set up national parks and reserves in the territories of their colonies. In Togo, for example, a circular of the Governor-General dated February 1st, 1933, stipulated the following : « I have envisioned as an efficient measure to prevent the excessive deforestation of the country, the creation of a vast government forest reserve, that would be released from the precarious woodlands that are vacant and have no owner, clearly defined by law, permanently defined in area and specially protected” (Aubréville, 1937). These protected areas were to remain, as far as possible, beyond all human contact, penetration and hunting being strictly forbidden (Foury, 1948).

    2Very rapidly, the large wild animals attracted the interest of a privileged occidental class who saw in them the symbol of wild nature, the incarnation of Eden on earth, the materialization of fantasies related to Nature re-discovered. However, pre-colonial Africa was not a paradise where man and nature lived in harmony. Forms of exploitation up till then judged hardly respectful of the environment were regularly practised, such as bush fires and forest fires. This observation does not call into question today, local knowledge of the rational utilization of limited resources, especially in fragile zones such as the Sahel where for example, herders move (mobility) according to the availability of the pasture-water resource binome, following the codes of rational utilization of the environment. Fire is also regarded differently and today most scientists agree that it is an integral part of the functioning of ecosystems of the savanna and is the main factor in their maintenance.

    3Land legislation in francophone Africa is based on the decree of February 5, 1938 governing the organization of forestry policy in French territories. This legal text, quite representative of its era, defines the forest and the domain of forestry, safeguards the customary rights of the residents and regulates the exploitation of forest products. However, for local residents, the classification of a forest is always seen as a sort of expropriation by the State. Most of the sites identified for the creation of protected areas in francophone Africa were located in the middle of what were once warriors’ no man’s lands (Benoit, 1999), however, their imposed protection has provoked hostility on the part of the residents who saw this as a land freeze. Today we still find this defiance with regards to central authority incarnated by the government responsible for conservation in the paper on the protected areas of Togo presented by Hounkpe (these proceedings). The socio-political problems of the 1990s were marked by the systematic invasion of the protected areas of this country as a sign of protest against the government. Popular opinion attaches more importance to wildlife than to vegetation in considering protected areas as refuges for animals. It is not surprising that the exploitation of wildlife is most often a source of conflict between the residents and the government. The right to manage wildlife by traditional societies of hunters and traditional chiefs goes along with the classification, substituted by the hunting permits, that have taken away from the gardians of nature the motivation for protection (Salassi, 1995). This situation is the major cause of the poaching that abounds in the protected areas of West Africa.

    4Thus, setting up a reserved area must inevitably be achieved through control over land which constitutes the lynchpin of any environmental protection policy, particularly with regards to the classification of forests. The organization of people in spaces and their attitudes towards resources is expressed in terms of norms, rules, processes and institutions. Law emanates from a social group. It is the expression of its social relationships. Law is after all a product, a social fact, characterized by normative arrangements and a hierarchy of constraints (Barrière and Barrière, 1997). In modern, occidental concepts, it is the State which incarnates the collective general interest and not local groups of individuals.

    5Everywhere in West Africa, governments have developed legal texts to classify protected areas, to limit the practice of hunting, to regulate the practice of bushfires, to define the rangelands for herds, to protect flora and fauna. For example in Togo, with regards to vegetation, Ordnance No. 6 of March 15, 1973 regulates bushfires ; with regards to wildlife and hunting, Ordinance No. 4 of January 16, 1968 regulates the protection of wildlife and the practice of hunting ; and the Ordinance of March 25, 1984 modifies that of March 13, 1973 and sets up a new range of punishments, damages and fines.

    6Laws governing the forests are based on the premise that the more the access of rural residents to the biological resources (wildlife and vegetation) of protected areas is restrained, the more the maintenance of forest cover and wild animals can be guaranteed. In most countries of West Africa, biological resources within reserves have been managed more like a government “private garden », which has led Sournia (1990) to state that fenced-off protected areas have become “reserves of food surrounded by hunger”. Forest legislation in francophone Africa, originating from the colonial forest decree, is based on a governmental and centralized concept of the forest and its management which has revealed more or less everywhere in West Africa the limitations of the State (Tchamie, 1994).

    7However, the traditional forms of total protection of natural resources still exist, often of religious origin, as is the case in Madagascar for the forest (sacred wood) but also for the protection of wildlife as is illustrated by the work of Kpera, Sinsin and Mensah (these proceedings) for the crocodiles of northern Benin. This traditional protection can play an essential role in the maintenance of biodiversity since it is related to refuge zones.

    Economic liberalism, a way of saving biodiversity ?

    8The mark of classic conservation was exclusion up to the eighties as the incapacity of the State to efficiently manage the conservation of natural resources became increasingly clear. In addition, no compensation was proposed to the residents for the losses brought about by forbidding the use of spaces that were potentially productive. Today, conservationist thinking is supported by economic arguments. Liberal points of view fed by the principle of general participation, both economic and political, appear to be the solution to all the problems of integrated conservation. In fact, there currently exists a fear that conservation will be marginalized with regards to popular centers of interest. The issue here is to know how to reconcile economic and political power while remaining committed to conservation.

    9The future of biodiversity appears to be related, in contrast to what we might expect in view of its ecological foundations, to a rationale that is economic and seems to be the best way to guarantee the effective implication of all actors ; we are thinking first of all of the local residents. In this new approach to conservation, it was the commercial dimension of natural resources which stood out. This economic valuation of biodiversity presents a double interest (Rodary et al., 2003) : it makes it possible, first of all, to free ourselves from the authoritarianism of the State which, as has been shown, can be contested, by privatizing to a certain extent the management of resources ; secondly it creates a commercial interest in conservation. Consequently, it is a dynamic that is has emerged directly from neo-liberal ideology (of the nineties) for which the profit motive is a determining factor in all social transformation (Rodary et al., 2003). “In Africa, natural resources are above all a factor in economic development as much as a conservatory for the planet”. (Compagnon, 2000, pp. 34-35). In general, there are four main fields in the economy of conservation : the exploitation of forests, ecotourism, biological prospection and the utilization of non-domestic animals. Cases of the commercial exploitation of these resources are multiple, and an example is provided in the paper by Galat-Luong and Galat (these proceedings) concerning the possibility of raising game (bushbuck, red-flanked duiker, roan antelope,…) in southeastern Senegal and thus to contribute at the same time to the development of visual tourism. Mama and Sinsin (these proceedings) also raise the case of the elephants of Alfakoara (Benin) that constitute a natural resource that is from now on exploitable thanks to the seasonal tourist industry set up by the Associations Villageoises de Gestion des Réserves de Faune (Avigref). Another example is given in the paper by Sinsin and Djodjouwin (these proceedings) who present the advantages and constraints of ecotourism development for the protected sites of Agbassa, Mount Kouffe and Mount Soubakpérou in Benin.

    10The economic returns on experience cannot be calculated since these initiatives are recent, but it can be supposed that it is difficult for these operations to be profitable. In the area of visual tourism, the examples tend to show that only a few countries manage to make profits that are acceptable (Kenya, South Africa), given that, in these specific cases, the benefits for the local residents are marginal. Conservation that is developed according to a purely economic rationale, without a political structure of regulation, appears thus to be more ideological than practical, according to authors such as Rodary et al. (2003). This proposition can be nuanced by emphasizing that the participative management of natural resources for economic reasons constitutes a stake that can mobilize residents in search of a plan of action. Complementarity with other activities is necessary. It is thus without a doubt through the multiplicity of community micro-activities at the local scale of village lands that a progressive equilibrium will be reached between conservation and development.

    The participative approach to the management of the resources of protected areas proceeds through a transfer of power to riverain peoples

    11The participation of local residents in the management of natural resources is a central theme of conservation as is attested by the large number of papers on this issue during the seminar (photo 1). Is it not time to recognize the legitimacy of the management of natural resources by communities of users whose roots in the territory date back for generations ? It is an admitted fact as it constitutes a powerful theme among conservationists. Territorial roots are in fact a complex reality as they concern a space in transformation, in particular in the periphery of protected areas (pioneer fronts) where local and migrant peoples mix.

    12Participative conservation implies that the legitimacy of communities to manage natural environments be recognized. The responsibility of managing the resources of protected areas should be transferred to local residents. To make this transfer effective, decentralization laws should delegate to communities this “property” or the “management rights” to the entire communal space and its natural resources and thus notably to the forest domain that is called protected (Jean, 1995). In West Africa, Galat-Luong and Galat (these proceedings) observe that “The management and exploitation of wildlife, which were once the responsibility of local traditional institutions, are today the responsiblity of central governments”. They continue in these terms, “Once located in the bush which was the place for the infinite renewal of natural resources, wildlife are now limited to protected areas, delimited according to foreign concepts during their creation and used today essentially for the benefit of tourists from elsewhere. What vision do the local residents have of these changes ?”

    13The process of decentralization in West Africa is thus a favorable context, but it will generate new local controls over the resource. We should pay attention to possible transfers between an illicit use of firewood, for example, and its normalization through taxes set up by communes interested in balancing their budgets. An identical outcome can be observed with local communities (groups of villagers and herders) who see in these beginnings of liberalism the opportunity to improve their living conditions. Decentralization and local participation do not mean a disengagement of the State, which must, without returning to the authoritarianism of the past, maintain its regulatory role. Still very present but committed to a new management policy, the national parks department of Senegal deliberately chose to involve the local residents in the management of resources ; an example is provided by Diobate (these proceedings) for the national park of the Saloum delta. The paper presented by Tchamie (these proceedings) also illustrates the initiative of the State in the setting up of a policy of participative management in the protected areas of Togo. The management of natural resources and the organization of territories in general is not a matter for a few actors but relies on interventions at several levels such as the grassroots communities, the decentralized governments, the State and the many actors involved in development and conservation (national and international NGOs). These actors play a role in the organization of the local residents, as shown by El Hadj Issa, Ouedraogo and Amadou (these proceedings) in characterizing the forms of peasant organizations in the Biosphere of W in Benin. The national NGOs also represent omnipresent actors, as shown by the paper by Saidou (these proceedings) concerning the interventions of the NGO Alliance Niger, with regards to participative management in park W and in the Aïr-Ténéré Nature Reserve in Niger.

    14In this network of actors in conservation and development, grassroots communities represent the essential link in what we might call today sustainable management of the natural environment. The recent and more or less systematic reference to local residents in conservation, and also in development, should not be just a highlighting device to persuade funders, sensitive to this new social reality, within the framework of programme financing. The participation of the local residents should be effective during the course of the projects. It is on the basis of local knowledge, the perception of peasants of their environment, associated with a scientific approach, that it is possible to develop a principle of co-management, founded on convergent knowledge. What other approach could be considered ? The initiative should be systematized in as much as each group possesses a great deal of knowledge on the environment that is accompanied by socio-cultural practices described more or less everywhere in West Africa. They offer examples of protection of certain animal species. Thus, Kpera, Sinsin and Mensah (these proceedings) show that in northern Benin, certain ethnic groups consider the crocodile to a divinity while others, who do not venerate it, have crocodile totems that forbid the consumption of its flesh. The importance of the wild animal is also present in the culture of the Teda-Daza of northern Niger as shown by Tubiana (these proceedings). A poignant example of the active participation of the local residents in the management of protected areas is given by Shalukoma (these proceedings) who shows that in the Democratic Republic of Congo, hunting and the control of poaching make it possible to create employment for young pygmies. However, their knowledge of the environment does not mean that they practise a reasoned utilization of it since, as emphasized by Compagnon, we should not “…surrender to the naïve illusion that communities who practise ‘traditonal’ methods of management, favor, as if by a miracle, the renewal of the resource and its sustainable utilization…” (Compagnon, 2000, p. 30). It is thus really a question of participation, that is to say, accompanying local residents with the aid of a body of actors for the co-gestion of natural resources.

    Image

    Photograph 1 : Participation of the local residents in Cameroon (picture Paul Noupa)

    15The situation of biodiversity, as that of “natural” landscapes, is precarious in Africa. The large number of papers at the Parakou seminar on the issue of the participation of local residents in the management of the natural environment is a clear witness of a new trend founded on the participative approach to conservation ; the protected areas of Africa could not survive without it. On a more global scale, the future of these protected areas can also be ensured by integrating them into the legitimate development plans of African governments ; the presence of the State is required in conservation. Thus, classic protection should not be abandoned on the pretext that its results are insufficient. “It should be supported, but we should go beyond that.” (Benoit, p. 86, in Rodary et al., 2003). The safeguarding of biodiversity is also achieved by the integration of a conservation rationale within “classic” development projects. In effect, as Müller remarks (1998), a “space that feeds a community is cared for as such. If it feeds the State, the stakes become its fraudulent exploitation, except if the State redistributes its revenues or plays a recognized and efficient role”. The conservation of wildlife, the development of ecotourism and other projects can be exploited for the benefit of riverain residents of protected areas as shown by Galat-Luong et Galat (these proceedings), and Diobate (these proceedings) in Senegal, Hounkpe (these proceedings) and Tchamie (these proceedings) in Togo and by Issa, Ouedraogo and Amadou (these proceedings) in Benin. We will continue to vote for laws and regulations, but it should be recognized that we have sometimes come to the conclusion that it is just as good to promote social control of the environment by the volontary support by local residents of the objectives of protection of the natural resources of protected areas. It is in this perspective of developing a new form of environmentalist approach that Tchamie (these proceedings) in his study explores new ideas that should make it possible to distribute roles among the local residents and the State. The classic idea founded on the maintenance of the biological resources of protected areas in their original condition, disconnected from their social, cultural, economic and religious environment, has given way to the notion of the management of an ecological whole from which people are not excluded. Traditional religions, far from being an obstacle to the protection and the management of the natural environment, would on the contrary guarantee the perennial biodiversity of these protected ecosystems. The sacred forest has religious, social, economic and ecological functions all at the same time. In northern Niger, the experience of protection and the reintroduction of wildlife have produced positive results as a result of projects. However, the preservation of wildlife should not be conceived uniquely from the point of view of occidental science, but also from that of the pre-existing culture of wildlife. It would thus be difficult, concludes Tubiana (these proceedings), to protect one without conserving the other.

    Bibliographie

    Des DOI sont automatiquement ajoutés aux références bibliographiques par Bilbo, l’outil d’annotation bibliographique d’OpenEdition. Ces références bibliographiques peuvent être téléchargées dans les formats APA, Chicago et MLA.

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    Fournier, A., Sinsin, B., & Mensah, G. A. (Eds.). (2007). Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ? (1–). IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001
    FOURY, P. (1949). Principes de sylviculture tropicale. In BOIS & FORETS DES TROPIQUES (Vols. 11, pp. 269-276). CIRAD (Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique Pour le Developpement). https://doi.org/10.19182/bft1949.11.a37140
    Sournia, G. (1990). Les aires de conservation en Afrique francophone : aujourd’hui et demain espaces à protéger ou espaces à partager ?. Cahiers d’outre-mer, 43(172), 451-463. https://doi.org/10.3406/caoum.1990.3361
    Fournier, Anne, Brice Sinsin, and Guy Apollinaire Mensah, eds. Quelles Aires protégées Pour l’Afrique De l’Ouest ?. []. IRD Éditions, 2007. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001.
    FOURY, P. “Principes De Sylviculture Tropicale”. BOIS &Amp; FORETS DES TROPIQUES. CIRAD (Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique Pour le Developpement), May 31, 1949. https://doi.org/10.19182/bft1949.11.a37140.
    Sournia, Gérard. “Les aires de conservation en Afrique francophone : aujourd’hui et demain espaces à protéger ou espaces à partager ?”. Cahiers d’outre-mer 43, no. 172 (1990): 451-63. https://doi.org/10.3406/caoum.1990.3361.
    Fournier, Anne, et al., editors. Quelles Aires protégées Pour l’Afrique De l’Ouest ?. [], IRD Éditions, 2007. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001.
    FOURY, P. “Principes De Sylviculture Tropicale”. BOIS &Amp; FORETS DES TROPIQUES, vol. 11, CIRAD (Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique Pour le Developpement), 31 May 1949, pp. 269-76. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.19182/bft1949.11.a37140.
    Sournia, Gérard. “Les aires de conservation en Afrique francophone : aujourd’hui et demain espaces à protéger ou espaces à partager ?”. Cahiers d’outre-mer, vol. 43, no. 172, 1990, pp. 451-63. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.3406/caoum.1990.3361.

    Cette bibliographie a été enrichie de toutes les références bibliographiques automatiquement générées par Bilbo en utilisant Crossref.

    Bibliography

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    Auteurs

    • Franck Giazzi

      Franck Giazzi, géographe de l'environnement
      laboratoire Territoires, UMR 5194, UJF/UPMF/CNRS
      Institut de géographie alpine
      14 bis, av. Marie Reynoard, 38100 Grenoble, France
      associé IRD UR 136 « Aires protégées en Afrique de l’Ouest »

    • Thiou Tanzidani Komlan Tanzidani Komlan Tchamié

      Thiou Tanzidani Komlan Tchamié, biogéographe
      université de Lomé, BP 20634 Lomé, Togo

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    Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?

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    Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?

    Ce livre est cité par

    • Lamarque, François. Mensah, Guy Apollinaire. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8016
    • Fournier, Anne. Millogo-Rasolodimby, Jeanne. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8014
    • Fournier, Anne. Sinsin, Brice. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8010
    • Claro, Françoise. Guenda, Wendengoudi. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8019
    • Boissieu, Dimitri de. MahamadouSalifou, . BriceSinsin, . MoussaAlou, . Famara, Drammeh. AgatheFantodji, . BernardFosso, . Kakpo, MarcelComlan. GermainNgandjui, . CrisantosObama, . ChristineSagno, . AdamaTondossama, . (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8017
    • Lamarque, François. Mensah, Guy Apollinaire. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8022
    • deBoissieu, Dimitri. MahamadouSalifou, . BriceSinsin, . MoussaAlou, . Famara, Drammeh. AgatheFantodji, . BernardFosso, . Kakpo, Marcel Comlan. Ngandjui, Germain. C, . Sagno, Christine. Tondossama, Adama. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8023
    • Claro, Françoise. Guenda, Wendengoudi. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8013
    • Nomao, Adamou. Gautun, Jean-Claude. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8046
    • Fournier, Anne. Millogo-Rasolodimby, Jeanne. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8020
    • Giazzi, Franck. Tchamié, Thiou Tanzidani KomlanTanzidani. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8021
    • Fournier, Anne. Sinsin, Brice. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8009
    • Claro, Françoise. Faye, Bernard. Tubiana, Jérôme. Sissler, Céline. Pellé, Eric. (2007) Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. DOI: 10.4000/books.irdeditions.8026
    • Yao, Namoin. (2017) Impact(s) des technologies numériques en période de crise : cas du conflit à Mango, Togo. Communication, technologies et développement. DOI: 10.4000/ctd.763
    • Yao, Namoin. (2018) Impact(s) des technologies numériques en période de crise : cas du conflit à Mango, Togo. Communication, technologies et développement. DOI: 10.4000/ctd.574

    Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?

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    Référence numérique du chapitre

    Format

    Giazzi, F., & Tchamié, T. T. K. K. (2007). The Participation of Local Residents in the Management of Natural Resources. In A. Fournier, B. Sinsin, & G. A. Mensah (éds.), Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ? (1‑). IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8021
    Giazzi, Franck, et Thiou Tanzidani Komlan Tanzidani Komlan Tchamié. « The Participation of Local Residents in the Management of Natural Resources ». In Quelles Aires protégées Pour l’Afrique De l’Ouest ?, édité par Anne Fournier, Brice Sinsin, et Guy Apollinaire Mensah. Marseille: IRD Éditions, 2007. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8021.
    Giazzi, Franck, et Thiou Tanzidani Komlan Tanzidani Komlan Tchamié. « The Participation of Local Residents in the Management of Natural Resources ». Quelles Aires protégées Pour l’Afrique De l’Ouest ?, édité par Anne Fournier et al., IRD Éditions, 2007, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8021.

    Référence numérique du livre

    Format

    Fournier, A., Sinsin, B., & Mensah, G. A. (éds.). (2007). Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ? (1‑). IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001
    Fournier, Anne, Brice Sinsin, et Guy Apollinaire Mensah, éd. Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. Marseille: IRD Éditions, 2007. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001.
    Fournier, Anne, et al., éditeurs. Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest ?. IRD Éditions, 2007, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.8001.
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