Introduction

1Carpology and palynology are two scientific disciplines whose results contribute to the understanding of the vegetal environment, diet, diseases and drugs of the prehistoric human populations. Pollen analyses of human coprolites provide the best testimony of human vegetal diet, of its nutritious content and therapeutic properties.

2Carpology (from the ancient Greek word Karpos) includes the study of fruit, grains and all macro-remains related to plant fructification, such as ears, which are collected in archeological sediments.

3Frequently, when vegetal remains are fossilized, they are found as charcoal remains after fire or burning. They may also have been mineralized due to the physico-chemical processes related to sedimentation, or soaked by the dissolved mineral substances which replace the organic matter they contain by chemical precipitation in the sites which were submerged.

4Carpological studies are especially relevant to the Neolithic period during which farming began to develop.

5However, sampling of Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic sediments has proved to bring successful results, especially in French sites (Bonne et Miskovsky, 1976) and among them:

• fruit stones (plums, sloes, cherries...), walnuts, hazelnuts and acorns samples in the layered of coloured pebbles in the Mas d’Azil Cave;

• grains of European hackberry in the Escale Cave at Saint-Esteve- Janson, in the Mas des Caves Cave at Lunel-Viel and in the Caune de l’Arago at Tautavel;

• grape seeds in the Terra Amata site near Nice;

• fruits of leguminous plants (peas, lentils...) and grape seeds in the Baumes of Fontbregoua and L’Abeurador at Felines- Minervois;

• a complete fruit and some pear seeds at Teviec in Brittany;

• and finally carbonized hazelnuts, frequently found in prehistoric sites of Alsace, Ain, Aveyron, Dordogne...

6Though incomplete, this inventory illustrates the role of fruit gathering in the everyday life of prehistoric human populations during the Paleolithic period.

7Palynology is a word which root come from the ancient Greek Palynein (to spread or to sprinkle) or pale (flour or dust). This discipline studies the shape and meaning of spores and pollen grains in order to know the past plants and to reconstruct their history. Spores and fossil pollen grains are kept for ever when protected from oxidization.

8Some archeological sediments from the Lower and Middle Paleolithic periods in Southeastern France have provided pollen spectra (Renault-Miskovsky, 1972) which were used to draw the inventory of "plants which were part of the diet of our ancestors" (Couplan, 1996).

9The study of these pollen spectra leads F. Couplan to think that "it seems that, at the various periods considered and close to the sites studied, a great variety of plants was available to meet human dietary needs".

10It seems obvious that plants were part of the diet of the past human populations. Paleoethnobotanic data show that hunter-gatherers ate between 20 and 80% of vegetal food as a daily diet, i.e. every plant which was neither toxic nor too hard.

11Fire mastery has logically favoured the consumption of plants rich in carbohydrates which have to be cooked to be comestible, and even digestible.

12It is however quite impossible to know if all the plants identified were really used since only a study of stomach content and coprolites which have kept macroremains and/or pollens could bring definitive evidence. This points out the emphasis to be given to the study of human coprolites and of their pollen content.

13Coprolites contain the best evidence of prehistoric remains, which have kept record of the pollen rain. Numerous coprolites, excreted most probably by a prehistoric human being, collected right on the spot in a dune of the Terra Amata site (Alpes-Maritimes) and dated from the Lower Paleolithic, were studied for their pollen content (Beaulieu de, 1967).

14Though only one analysis cannot be totally conclusive, this author has shown that:

• several littoral taxa have be found associated: Crithmum mari- tlmum, Ephedra cf. distachya, Thymela sp. and Plantago coronopus;

• a river bank forest existed nearby, with alders and ash trees;

• thermophile and even Mediterranean species (Maritime and Alep pine trees, ilex and arborescent heather);

• pollens from the closest mountain areas: Pinus sylvestris and fir trees.

15For instance, pollen analysis has contributed to understand what was the vegetal environment of the prehistoric human populations settled along the Mediterranean shore, downhill the western side of the Mont Boron, during the middle Pleistocene (Renault-Miskovsky, 1976).

16Human coprolites of other sites such as those of the rock shelter of Pedra Furada (Piaui, Brésil) which is considered as one of the oldest prehistoric site of America. These fossil coprolites were dated from 8500 to 7000 B.P., during a well identified cultural stage, the Serra Talhada tradition, and their pollen contents was studied. The pa- leoclimatic and paleoenvironmental results we obtained can be also interpreted in terms of paleoethnology (Chaves and Renault- Miskovsky, 1996).

17Some taxa, such as Myrcia sp., Alchornea sp., Mansoa sp. and Bignonaceae and Bombacacae families, indicate an association characterizing a humid climate with heavy rainfalls (more than 1500 mm) which is quite different from the present dry climate.

18Several plants were used for their diet: Phaseolus sp. ("feijao-bravo"), Anacardium sp. ("cajuzinho"), Cucurbitaceae and Convolvulaceae.

19Finally palynological studies have identified a range of plants selected for their therapeutic properties by the populations of Pedra Furada:

20Borreria sp. ("cabeça-de-velho") whose infused leaves facilitate digestion

21Sida sp. ("malva-benta") whose leaves participate in wound desinfection

22Terminalia sp. ("magarico") against dysentery

23Anadenanthera sp. ("angina") whose bark was infused to treat breathing troubles and grated to ease gum and teeth pains, and whose resin produces an expectorant syrup

24Bauhinia sp. ("miraro") whose infused bark is tonic and vermifuge, and in decoction is used as bath for easing eyes

25Caesalpinia sp. ("pau-ferro") whose Infused bark is used to healing, whose infused leaves and fruits fight dysentery, and whose concentrated infused fruit can have an abortive effect

26Cecropia sp. ("embauva") whose infused leaves are used to ease pain

27Croton sp. ("marmeleiro, velame") whose infused leaves ease rheumatism, headache, flu and bronchitis

28Mansoa sp. ("cipo-de-alho") whose infused stems and leaves are used to treat throat pain and to ease diabetes

29Chenopodium sp. ("mentruz") which has a fortifying and vermifuge action when infused.

Conclusion

30The study of the paleobotanic remains in prehistoric sediments and in fossil coprolites has shown to be essential to the knowledge of the vegetal environment, the diet, diseases and pharmacopoeia of prehistoric human populations. Most of our results can be also profitably applied to some present populations who live in close contact with their natural environments.

31Our conclusion can be taken from the thesis of F. Couplan:

32"The large spectrum of flavours that wild plants offer is for us a stimulation and a source of delights that it would be a shame not to benefit... Gathering wild plants develops a deep close relationship between the human beings and their environment, so that they realize concretely how Nature is of vital importance for their life: earth is truly our nourishing mother".