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Agriculture biologique en Martinique

 | 
Martine François
, 
Roland Moreau
, 
Bertil Sylvander

Synopsis and recommendations

Question 1. What are the definitions and representations of organic farming in Martinique, around the world and in Europe?

Texte intégral

1In Europe, organic farming is now governed by EC regulations. But although these regulations spell out definitions at some length, the legal texts do not solve the problem of definitions, and it is one that is central to this review. Organic farming is the product of a long historical process which has finally led to these regulations. But organic farming has taken a variety of forms in different countries and at different times. It gradually acquired legitimacy in most countries at a time when productivist agriculture was increasingly coming under critical fire. Organic farming is often presented not only as a mode of agricultural production but above all as part of a socio-political alternative to a contested social system.

2So while we will certainly take "certified organic farming" into account, we will also consider other forms of agriculture that can be regarded as closely related. In fact there is a continuum between several forms of agriculture that aim to improve on, or at least constitute alternatives to, the conventional farming system that is now called into question by some consumers and a section of civil society.

Definitions of organic farming

3In countries where there is interest in organic farming there is some controversy over the definition of the term.

4The "pioneers" regard it as a set of farming practices that respect the balance of nature, animal welfare, and social and humanistic principles. Organic farming in this sense can be a "sustainable" alternative to productivist agriculture.

Organic farming: technical principles in the service of an agricultural production ethic

5IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements) takes this view and defines a list of technical and ethical principles for organic farming (Table 5):

  • Ecological principles: these aim to maintain and improve the quality of the land, reduce pollution, use plants and animals adapted to the local environment, recycle animal manure, ensure animal welfare, and save energy.

  • Social and humanistic principles: these mention bringing producers and consumers closer together, fair trade, international solidarity and keeping farmers on the land.

  • Economic principles: these include promoting business on a human scale, maintaining local markets, fair prices for produce.

6Below are the principles of organic farming as set out by IFOAM (IFOAM, Basle, 2000).

Table 5 - Principles of organic farming according to IFOAM

The following principles are not set out in order of priority. They should all be followed in a balanced way.
-To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity.
- To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and cycles.
- To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, involving micro organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
- To promote a rich and sustainable aquatic ecosystem.
- To maintain and increase long-term fertility of soils.
- To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats
- To promote the responsible use and conservation of water and all life therein.
- To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organised agricultural systems.
- To create a harmonious balance between crop production and animal husbandry.
- To provide living conditions that allow animals to express the basic aspects of their innate behavior
- To avoid all forms of pollution.
- To use renewable resources to prepare organic produce.
- To produce non-food products by organic agriculture which are fully biodegradable.
- To produce long-lasting, high-quality textile fibres
- To allow everyone involved in organic production and processing a quality of life that meets their basic needs and provides an adequate return and satisfaction from their work, including a safe working environment.
- To support the establishment of an entire production, processing and distribution chain which is both socially just and ecologically responsible.

Organic farming: European and French regulations

7The authorities in Western countries have set out to certify organic agriculture along same lines as any standardisation intended to facilitate short-or long-distance trade. The certification is based on regulatory definitions that allow for verification. In Europe, the legal basis for organic farming is Regulation 2092/91 for crop products and Regulation 1804/99 for animal products.

8The regulatory definition used by the EU broadly covers the IFOAM principles. Adopting these regulations was seen as a way for organic farming to position itself in a credible way on the market for high-quality products.

9The EU regulations aims to be precise and verifiable. They define a mode of agricultural production for crops and animals (Table 6), regulate labelling, processing, inspection and trade in organic farm produce within the community, and regulate the import of such products from non-EU countries.

10Annex 1 to the regulations gives a list of principles applicable to organic farming, which adopt the technical aspects of the IFOAM rules; Annex 2 gives a list of inputs that can be used in organic farming.

11As the purpose is to regulate organic farming, IFOAM's principles have not been adopted in full, particularly its ethical principles. These aspects are left to the judgement of the producers, who can equally well limit themselves to a technical and economic approach, simply practicing a form of agriculture that uses only the permitted inputs. For these farmers, organic farming, like any other type of farming, is a matter of supplying a particular market.

12Other countries and regions of the world, the United States and Japan in particular, have introduced certification systems that are more or less similar.

13At the other end of the scale there are millions of smallholders around the world (especially in developing countries) and hundreds of initiatives aiming to improve productivity using local resources. These practice what can be seen as an agro-ecological form of farming, based as far as possible on natural resources.

14There are also many poor farmers practicing traditional forms of agriculture that use no external inputs, simply for lack of resources. These systems cannot be compared with organic farming because their productivity is very low and they do not maintain soil fertility efficiently. In these situations, ecological farming and organic farming can provide farmers with ways to increase yields and productivity.

Table 6 - European regulations on organic farming

Table 6 - European regulations on organic farming

Note 7. LU: livestock unit.

15So at the world level there is organic farming that is certified and regulated in one way or another (OF in the rest of this report), ecological farming (EF), which is not yet certified or is seeking new forms of certification in connection with IFOAM, and traditional farming, practiced by a majority of the world's farmers, mainly in the Third World.

16There is also conventional farming (CF in this report) practiced mainly in the developed world and using synthetic chemical inputs. This type of farming predominates in Europe and the United States. After the second World War there was a broad social consensus in its favour because it enabled these countries to achieve self-sufficiency and surplus.

17But once their quantitative needs were fully met, consumers, citizens and farmers began to challenge this model, particularly for its damaging effects on the environment and on health, especially the health of farmers using certain crop protection chemicals. Low-input agriculture (LIA) and integrated farming systems (IFS) aim to limit the use of inputs and/or use natural methods to limit pollution and improve product quality.

18Some methods such as fallowing, biological pest control and crop rotation are used in both OF and IFS. Synergy between sectors can be organised, and some research is useful for the development of both OF and IFS. However, unlike organic farming, IFS and low-input agriculture allow the use of chemical fertilisers and synthetic crop protection chemicals.

19Certified OF accounts for a minor or even marginal proportion of farms and farmland area, but traditional farming and ecological farming, which are both largely based on the use of natural resources, actually account for the majority of the world's farmland and feed the majority of the planet's inhabitants.

Representations of organic farming

"Ethical" versus "commercial" organic farming

20In developed and developing countries alike, "ethical" organic farming and "commercial" organic farming involve different types of farmer – the "pioneer producers" and the "new" organic producers – and also different types of farm enterprise and professional organisation.

21The "pioneer producers" are those who have chosen a form of agricultural development based on values that do not depends solely on the state of the market. They have chosen to adopt environment-friendly and ethical principles, but as they make their living from farming they also take the economic aspects into account. This category includes many farmers who have been established in OF for more than ten years.

22The "new organic producers" started later, in the late 1990s. They have adopted organic farming in response to market demand, but are liable to drop it if economic conditions are no longer favourable, whereas the "pioneer producers" have made a longer-term commitment.

23Of the processing and distribution enterprises, some are entirely devoted to processing or distributing organic produce. These are usually fairly small firms (in France the Biocoop retail network is one example). Others are firms for whom the organics sector is a way of diversifying, with most of their food sales being of conventional produce. Examples are the supermarket chains. The first group are unlikely to abandon organics easily as their very existence depends on it. The second group may switch strategies according to market conditions. This can cause real problems for producers in some product chains. In France, INRA researchers analysed the examples of dairy farmers in the Biolait GIE partnership dealing with the major dairy processor Lactalis and the renegotiation of contracts between the Auchon hypermarket chain and organic beef and veal producers. In both cases, the problem affected all the organic farmers in the product chain. INRA research also shows that the expansion of the organics market since the 1990s has mainly involved the “new producers” and the supermarket chains. However, these categories are not invariable and can overlap.

24The same phenomenon is found in Martinique, in Europe and world wide. It is the result of the way the organic farming movement grew up historically, of the definitions and certification systems that have resulted in Europe and elsewhere, and the sector's economic development.

25The process is not peculiar to organic farming; in France, the same process has occurred with quality labels and protected designations of origin, all of which began on the initiative of a few "pioneer" professionals.

Official certification, group certification and participatory certification

Organic certification in France and Europe

26European OF regulations provide for official certification by a certifying body accredited under European standard EN 45011. In France there are currently six accredited organisations, all based in metropolitan France.

27In Martinique, certified organic farmers in the Bio des Antilles association were supervised until 2003 by the Qualité France certifying body.

28In 2004, Qualité France withdrew from these contracts because, having no base in the Caribbean, it could only certify farms by sending missions from metropolitan France – a costly and complicated system. As this illustrates, farmers are dependent on the certifying body's commercial decisions. For example, this year it was not possible to organise certification of the pilot organic farm jointly run by CIRAD and an agricultural high school; this will probably mean a year's delay in certification. And as produce cannot be sold as organic until certification is achieved, this is a handicap for developing OF on the island.

  • 1 Agence Bio: French agency for the development of organic farming. A partnership involving the Agric (...)

29A certified producer can state "agriculture biologique", "biologique" or a derivative term on the product label along with the French “AB” logo and the European logo. Using these logos is a distinct advantage on the market. A survey by market research company CSA for Agence Bio1, almost all who buy organic products mention labelling, the use of the “AB” logo, or mention of "agriculture biologique" or the certifying body on the label, as a way of making sure the product is organically produced. Consumers in general are familiar with the official organic farming label as a quality label.

30Certification is mandatory if a Martiniquan producer exporting to metropolitan France wants to label a product as being organically produced.

31Certification is also mandatory for selling in Martinique if the label states that the produce is organically produced. This means it is obligatory for selling produce as organic produce through any long marketing channel, particularly the supermarket chains.

32Most certified producers have large or medium-sized holdings, although some small producers may want to get certified to break into markets where it is indispensable. Except for very high value-added products, certification is expensive for small farms, as they must offset the cost from a small output. But for the consumer, it is a guarantee that the product is organic, and this is essential unless the producer is selling direct to the consumer.

33Should decision makers so choose, the high cost of certification can be partly covered by subsidies to farmers.

Certification and the small producer

34In many developing countries, certified organic farming primarily targets the developed world. The certification process is therefore controlled by the developed countries' certifying bodies. Moreover, it is the processors and distributors who benefit most from the value-added, to the detriment of the farmers.

35For these reasons, many developing countries are setting up their own certification systems and certifying bodies. IFOAM can accredit these bodies through the IOAS (International Organic Accreditation Service).

36This official certification system is based on a single set of regulations that does not make it easy to take account of local particularities. It also excludes most small producers from the organic farming movement, both because of the high cost of certification and because it involves inspections and complicated record-keeping, which are often ill adapted to the realities of family farming and small-scale production. And it does not optimise the potential of the direct link between producer and consumer.

  • 2 See IFOAM's position on smallholder group certification for organic production and processing (www. (...)

37For these reasons, IFOAM supports a "group certification" approach2. IFOAM allows that if groups of smallholders develop their own Internal Control System (ICS), annual inspection by an outside certifying body will constitute an effective guarantee system. This system also strengthens the group's managerial capacity.

38In some countries, e.g. Brazil, groups of producers and consumers are advocating "participatory certification". Promoters of this type of certification, e.g. the Ecovida network, think that ecological farming and family farming have an important function in bringing producers and consumers closer together, whereas industrial agriculture tends to distance them. Certification is thus a tool in the service of the group's social project, not merely a process for obtaining a label to facilitate market access. Participatory certification is based on mobilising social networks that link producers, consumers and processors. It involves no less work, commitment and transparency on the part of the producers, but these requirements are met in a different way – through meetings with consumers, by drawing up charters, organising inspections by consumers, etc.

39In this way social control organised around "participatory certification" gives the consumer an assurance that the product is organically produced. This form of certification is not yet fully worked out but IFOAM is organising discussions on the issue. Participatory certification, which would eliminate the cost of certification by an officially accredited body, primarily concerns smallholders in direct contact with consumers, selling on neighbourhood markets or by direct sale.

40In Martinique, farmers producing for direct sale and farmers in the Orgapéyi group, which already has a policy of close links with the consumer association Capable, could develop a certification system of this kind.

41Table 7 below sums up the various forms of farming and types of certification available, according to their degree of investment in environmental protection.

Application of the main technical principles of organic farming in Martinique

Harness natural cycles to the needs of agriculture

  • 3 Synthetic chemicals, particularly antibiotics, can be used in exceptional circumstances.

42Because organic farming sets strict limits on the use of synthetic chemical inputs3, it requires the farmer to make optimum use of the natural resources available on their farm. It often takes several years' experience to get to know these resources, assess their potential and make best use of them in the farming system. Compared to CF, converting to OF requires a new way of thinking about crop farming and farm management, from the types of crop or livestock used to the marketing channels adopted.

43A farmer converting from CF must develop different skills to run the same farm on an organic basis, and must also link up with different networks of suppliers, technicians and marketing channels.

  • The practices required for managing soil fertility, crop protection and animal health are different from and often more complex than those required for CF.

  • The inputs used in OF are different from those used in CF. Specific supply chains have to be set up to make them available.

  • Introducing crop rotation means producing and selling several different products, and usually both crops and livestock, either on the same farm or through agreements between farmers.

  • Technical advice on OF is supplied by networks with specific competencies which are scarce at present.

Table 7 - Proposed nomenclature for modes of agricultural production according to their degree of investment in environmental protection

Table 7 - Proposed nomenclature for modes of agricultural production according to their degree of investment in environmental protection

44It is therefore essential for farmers to be competent and highly motivated, because this kind of farming requires an understanding of agronomy and a sound knowledge of the farm's characteristics so as to make the most of its potential. It can take several years to acquire such knowledge of a farm. But because soil fertility can only be properly managed over a period of years, this potential can only be fulfilled where there is security of land tenure and a certainty that farming can continue there in the fairly long term.

Crop rotation: an essential part of organic farming

45Crop rotation is of prime importance in OF. It is foremost among the practices used in OF for managing pests, diseases and weeds, which are the main problems crop farmers face. It also helps to maintain soil fertility.

46Crop rotation assists soil fertility management because crop species and varieties differ in their rooting depth, their rate of nutrient uptake, their demand for different nutrient elements and the composition of their crop residue.

47Alternating species, and even varieties, on the same plot also helps to keep crop health problems at bay.

48Crop diversity, alternated sowings, introducing temporary grassland in a mixed crop system without livestock – or, in Martinique, a cereal or sugar cane in a market gardening system – are important preventive measures against weeds.

49The farmer's skill is to combine these data to design the best crop rotation for the farm. Agricultural research can give some indications as to the best options in general. Long rotations are recommended for OF, which apart from market gardens and Creole gardens implies either holdings of a certain size, or different farmers working together under types of agreement that have to be worked out.

Tilling the land while preserving its OF quality

50In OF as in CF, tillage destroys weeds, loosens the soil, turns in manure and crop residues and breaks up the top layer so that seedlings can take root. It also makes the surface layer more permeable so that irrigation is more efficient, facilitates mineralisation (which releases nutrients from the organic pool) and stimulates biological activity. A good soil structure is an important factor for ensuring a healthy crop.

51To preserve the soil's properties, OF recommends shallow tillage with implements with a lifting action, specific to this kind of farming. There are two obstacles that must be removed if organic farming is to develop in Martinique. One is the lack of local design and production of suitable tools for local conditions and objectives. The other is the widespread use of contractors for tillage, which means that the timing of cultivation depends on the contractor's availability and the farmers cannot take their own independent decisions.

Organically produced seed

52Organic farmers usually use seed produced by conventional farming methods, but since January 2004 the regulations make it mandatory to use seed from organically-grown plants. An exemption has been granted and the regulations already takes the situation into account. But unless the policy is changed, a sharp drop in the number of varieties available for some species (forage and market garden crops) is to be expected; for some species there will be virtually no organic seed varieties available. Exemption will still be necessary in the coming years to avoid penalising the organic market too heavily.

53This debate is particularly important in Martinique, because holdings of the “Creole garden” type grow a wide variety of plants – a fact that explains their technical efficiency, as biodiversity greatly reduces pest infestations. And the number of varieties available as organically-produced seed is likely to be limited. Martinique's farmers will have to make sure their particular situation is taken into account so that they can continue to grow on an organic basis a wide range of food crops fully adapted to their locality but not available as organic-certified seed. Discussions are under way with the Federation Nationale de l'Agriculture Biologique (FNAB).

54At present, there are no businesses producing or distributing organic seed or nursery plants in Martinique. However, nursery plants of hardy local varieties or varieties long ago introduced to the island are produced on-farm or traded among organic farmers. When they cannot find organic seed, growers must preferentially use untreated seed or, failing that, conventional seed that has been treated with no more than two active ingredients. Organic seed is available in Europe for some crops (home garden and market garden crops, cereals); for others, organic production is difficult (grape vine nurseries). More research is needed on several topics, particularly on seed disinfection processes compatible with OF specifications.

Soil fertility inputs in organic farming

55In organic farming, the soil fertility balance is maintained by returning organic matter to the soil, keeping the cycle as closed as possible. Soil fertility is based on organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and basic cations (potassium, magnesium and calcium).

56Organic matter has a key role in soil fertility, and good organic matter management is crucial for certified OF and any other type of eco-friendly farming. Apart from very young soils on volcanic ash and pumice stone, Martinique has soils that are naturally rich in organic matter (maintained by Creole agro-forestry gardens, combinations of Caribbean food crops in rotations with grassland grazed by tethered livestock).

57Medium-term organic soil conditioning has to be reconsidered for tropical environments. Compost in particular is widely used in OF in temperate climates, but mineralisation kinetics are far more rapid in the tropics. In these climates, the only way to boost a soil's organic and nitrogen store is to rotate row crops and perennial ground-cover crops, either applying nitrogen inputs to the cover crop or using nitrogen-fixing legumes.

58Plants grown in association but which do not fix nitrogen (tuber crops such as taro, yam, malanga and sweet potato) have a long enough cycle not to take up nitrogen too fast. But many crops, especially market garden crops, must either receive an exogenous nitrogen input or be grown in rotation with other types of crop, including Caribbean food crops.

59In Martinique there are two problems for nitrogen balance management. A crop rotation of several years requires a sufficiently large land area and requires the farmer either to keep livestock as well as growing row crops or to come to an agreement with other farmers for a manure supply. Secondly, although there are plenty of potential sources of organic matter in Martinique such as sewage sludge, green waste composting, bagasse, manure and household waste, they would have to be certified for use in organic farming and the processing and distribution chain would have to be organised.

60The use of urban sewage sludge is not allowed in organic farming. Some of the experts think that in view of the exceptional quality of the sewage sludge in Martinique, some way to obtain exemption should be sought to avoid wasting such a rich source of nitrogen and phosphorus. Others stress the negative image sewage sludge has with the consumer and think it might tarnish the image of organic farming in the consumer's eyes if it was used.

61In Martinique, the main problem is the widely-observed deficiency of other nutrients, mainly potassium and phosphorus. The oldest soils and acid soils have very limited pools of phosphorus and potassium in forms that plants can assimilate. Younger soils, and andosols and ferrisols that have received inputs under conventional agriculture, have pools that could cover the demands of several years' crops. However, the limited phosphorus and potassium resources could well be one of the limiting factors for the development of OF in Martinique, as there are few local sources for these elements (ash from burning plant matter, urban sewage sludge) and external sources approved for OF are far away.

Crop health in organic farming

62In OF, long rotations, crop associations and suitable cropping plans help to keep pests and diseases under control, mainly because they maintain or promote biodiversity.

63Varietal resistance is an elegant way to keep pests and diseases at bay, but resistant varieties may not be available for many species, especially in view of the wide range of pests and diseases that may affect them. Furthermore, organic farmers must use seed produced in compliance with OF specifications, and it is an open question whether organic-certified seed exists for Martinique's local food crop varieties.

  • 4 Pheromone confusion: lures containing pheromones of one sex of a given pest species are used confus (...)

64Where curative measures are necessary, OF controls insect pests using natural pyrethrins, rotenone, biological pest control by Bacillus thuringiensis and pheromone confusion4.

65More thorough knowledge of the functioning of agro-ecosystems is needed, to generate new pest management methods. Additional research to enlarge the range of crop protection products would also be useful, not only for organic farming but for agriculture in general. Synthetic pesticides have disadvantages for the product and for the farmers who use them; natural crop protection products could provide new, more effective and more environment-friendly solutions.

Typology of farm holdings and possibilities for conversion to organic farming

66Table 8 summarises the general technical advantages and limitations for converting to OF in the Martiniquan agricultural context.

Table 8 - Advantages and limitations for organic farming in Martinique

Table 8 - Advantages and limitations for organic farming in Martinique

67We can conclude from this general outline that on the face of it, the farms that can most easily convert to organics are holdings smaller than five hectares that use traditional methods, and those between 5 and 20 hectares that use long rotations and often multiple crops plus livestock. The large holdings might have the advantage of greater investment capacity, but it would be hard for them to change their marketing systems.

68Smallholders with farming systems based on traditional techniques or similar are already using techniques recommended for organic farming: rotation, mixed farming with crops and livestock to manage soil fertility, a range of different crops and low inputs. This is particularly true of some smallholders running Creole garden type systems.

69However, while these traditional practices are well adapted to the local area, the way they are passed on from generation to generation does not provide a theoretical basis that would enable farmers to innovate. The development authorities have not shown much interest in these systems, and there is a real danger that the know-how will be lost. Nor has the research community paid much attention to them, so systems combining innovation and tradition have not been developed as quickly as they might have been. It should be noted, however, that with multiple job-holding, uncertain profitability, insecure land tenure and informal or frankly parallel marketing channels, these smallholdings do not fit the socio-economic pattern of modern farms.

70Medium-sized (5-20 ha) farms have sufficient land to organise long rotations, and generally have long-term land tenure security. These farmers generally work full-time on their farms, and their professionalism makes them good candidates for moving to a type of agriculture that requires a fair degree of agronomic competence and enough time to monitor crops and livestock.

71For farms converting to OF, once the conversion is completed the new farming system can function very reliably on its the new basis. But the conversion and learning period requires the farmer to have sound agronomic competencies, an effective support network for operational technical advice. He must also be able to cope with the drop in income that is often unavoidable during the conversion period, during which output declines but certified OF prices cannot yet be charged. In theory, the loss of income is offset by state aid for conversion.

72For large farms, as for the smallest, appropriate systems have yet to be designed.

Consequences of the technical principles of organic farming for Martinique's main productions

Organic bananas

  • 5 Ecocert apparently allows tissue-cultured nursery banana plants in OF as an exemption , provided pl (...)

73The present cropping system for export bananas is based on fallowing and the use of tissue-cultured nursery plants. The single-crop system has practically died out. Fallowing (which rids the soil of nematodes and weevils) and tissue-cultured nursery plants (also free of these pests) has made it possible to develop a system with pest-free plants in a pest-free soil and to produce bananas in conditions that are environmentally more satisfactory under relatively low-input crop management protocols and systems. Use of tissue-cultured nursery plants is not yet clearly permitted in OF5, which is a handicap for developing organic banana growing in Martinique. However, bananas are already grown organically on neighbouring islands and it is technically possible in Martinique. It could be considered as a diversification crop in the southern part of the island. This would require irrigation from the Manzo reservoir, with foreseeable water access problems. Little land is available in the area, so it would be difficult to create new plantations without reducing the existing ones. Existing plantations might be induced to convert.

74Organic banana growing would have to adopt the principles of crop rotation and crop associations, so it would need to link up with other product chains, including those for locally-sold species. These practices already exist on some farms which use more environment-friendly methods.

75There are also structural difficulties to be overcome, not least of which is the scepticism of the main operators in the banana sector. However, one cooperative the experts met during their survey is ready to start trials with organic banana production and marketing. Market prices are falling, however; this is a negative factor in Martinique, where labour costs are higher than those of competitors in the Africa/Caribbean/Pacific zone and the “dollar zone” countries of Central and Southern America – especially the Dominican Republic. In the long run, organic growers would be well advised to position themselves on high-value-added products.

76The outlets for organic dessert bananas could be through export, provided a market niche can be found with a minimum market presence of 300 tonnes a year, compatible with Martinique's production capacity. Additional sales on the local market would bulk up sales and provide a second sales channel for greater security.

77Organic plantain bananas could be grown on multiple-cropping smallholdings, mainly for the local market. At present, plantain bananas are mainly grown by smallholders with no more than one or two hectares under this crop.

78For both types of banana, research is still needed to develop crop protocols suitable for organics, with crop rotation, associated livestock, etc.

Organic sugar cane

79Sugar cane is not much affected by disease, and integrated pest management methods exist for cases of severe infestation. Weed control and crop nutrition can be handled by intercropping with a legume for nitrogen and sowing inter-row crops of sweet potato or pigeon pea. For ratoon cane, mulching with a “trash blanket” of the previous year's crop residue solves the problem. There are therefore few technical limitations for growing organic sugar cane apart from the problem of rodent pests. The anticoagulant rat poisons used in conventional cane farming are not authorised in Europe, and the biological rat poisons used in the Caribbean are not permitted for imports because they are based on a Salmonella bacterium, which is potentially pathogenic for humans. Either another solution must be found, or an exemption obtained. Changing to organics will also mean ceasing stubble burning, which the regulations do not permit.

80Organic cane growing will also mean keeping collection and processing separate from the non-organic chain. Also, processing must be done without chemical flocculants, which is technically possible but reduces yield. Organic and non-organic sugar can be produced in the same mill, for example by processing the organic cane at the start of the processing season. But as the cane is harvested during a set period of the year (February to June in Martinique) and any delay in processing reduces yield, this type of organisation often leads to major losses. In other countries, the trend is for some sugar mills to specialise in organics.

81At present, sugar, rum and chewing cane are separate product chains in Martinique and the cane for each is grown separately.

82Chewing cane is grown throughout the island but figures are difficult to obtain. It is one of the many crops grown on smallholdings and in Creole gardens, and is sold for making juice and chewing sticks. It could be produced organically on multiple-cropping smallholdings.

83Rum is produced in distilleries, and recently “Martinique rum” has been granted recognition as a PDO (protected designation of origin). Organic rum is not a priority niche to aim for, as the PDO label already provides a price premium. However, the possibility need not be excluded.

84Sugar is produced in the island's only refinery, the Galion plant, which already receives an operating subsidy. Its cane supplies are handled by a network of suppliers, with the Exploitation Agricole du Galion providing 40 % of the volume delivered – 36,000 to 38,000 tonnes a year. The factory produces 6,000 to 8,000 tonnes of sugar – not enough to cover Martinique's consumption of 14,000 tonnes a year. Very often the brown sugar (table sugar) produced by the factory does not meet the quality requirements of the industrial sector, and demand from industry has declined.

85For organic sugar production, changes would have to be made to cane production methods and to the sugar (and industrial rum) manufacturing processes. A market would have to be found. Two scenarios may be suggested (also relevant to industrial rum).

86For exclusive production of organic sugar, all the cane coming into the factory must be certified organic. After that the constraints are mainly technical; the sugar must be refined without chemical flocculants. This is costly, but is already done in other countries.

87The other possibility is to produce organic and non-organic sugar in the same factory. As in other industrial sectors, the specifications state that the processing of organic and non-organic feedstock must be separated, either in time or physically. This adds to cost and reduces yield (e.g. if organic cane is processed at the start of the season).

88Given the current situation of the Galion refinery, it might be worthwhile to consider converting it to organic production in the long run. As it is already in deficit and subsidised, it would be an advantage to justify the state funding in terms of a project based on ethical and environmental values. This would also make an OF development plan more visible, both for the island's population and for tourists, who could then savour a punch made partly or entirely from organic ingredients. If this were done, a communication plan would also be needed to spotlight the product and the accompanying environment-friendly approach.

89On the cane production side, we can distinguish four types of grower according to size of holding and farming practices.

90Group A, the smallholders, manage their own cane harvest, mainly cutting by hand. The harvest occupies these farmers for several months, and cane growing is their central activity. Among this group are the sharecroppers of the Exploitation Agricole du Galion, in the Trinité area, who are members of the island's only cane-growers' CUMA (i.e. farmers' cooperative for pooling farm implements), the Malgré-Tout cooperative. This group's plantations average 2.5 ha. Group B hire labour for the harvest. The rest of the year is devoted to other crops, bananas, Caribbean food crops, market garden crops, livestock, or non-farm work. Group C cane growers have invested in farm implements which they hire out. This activity is important for the other farmers. Group D includes medium-sized and large holdings growing cane on a very stable basis with a reliable outlet, e.g. coupled with rum distilling.

91It is mainly the Group A farmers who supply the Galion refinery. They are already organised collectively, and the land they farm is not likely to be polluted by organochlorine compounds – two favourable factors for converting to organics.

92When deciding to produce organic sugar cane, a farmer must calculate costs and profitability, including the cost of conversion (partly offset by the reduced cost of inputs when no synthetic inputs are used), a possibly temporary drop in yields, possibly a lower processing yield and additional labour costs for manual cultivation and harvesting. Once the conversion is completed, the producer price for organic cane must cover production costs.

93Organic cane growing and processing produces inputs for organic farming: scums and composts made from refinery waste – bagasse, scums, vinasse, ash etc. Sugar cane can thus be regarded as the pivotal crop in a rotation that could include, for example, cane and bananas. If there were an organic sugar processing facility, this would provide an outlet for other organic farmers in addition to those who currently supply the Galion refinery.

94The presence of research institutions and a good supervisory structure for the growers are favourable factors for converting cane growing for the Galion refinery to OF, and also for obtaining certification for the refinery. The refinery's capacity to produce inputs for other organic farmers would be an additional advantage. And it would provide an outlet for farmers introducing sugar cane into an organic rotation system, but who do not currently supply the Galion factory.

95The first step would be to conduct a precise technical and economic feasibility study, including growers' opinions on the project, ways of encouraging growers, an economic analysis of organic sugar cane production and organic processing, and a suitable accompanying communications drive.

Organic Caribbean food crops, market gardening and fruit

96It is technically possible to produce organic tuber crops in Martinique. The main technical problems is to produce seed tubers free of soil-borne pathogens. The widespread practice of using seed tubers from the previous crop or untested imports creates a serious risk of propagating pathogens. A supply system for healthy seed tubers would therefore be necessary.

97The pests and diseases of these crops vary in their impact, and not all need to be treated. Soil-borne pests reduce yields and make rotation (e.g. with sugar cane) necessary. Harvest losses can amount to more than 50 %, but they can be reduced by combining a variety of solutions, ranging from crop associations and rotations to resistant clones developed by the research establishments.

98According to the farm census, the main Caribbean food crops, along with plantain banana, are yam, taro and sweet potato. Grown mainly for the family's consumption, these tuber crops are found in Creole gardens, in association with legumes and cucurbits; several yam species or cultivars are grown together. During the 1960s these crops gradually became cash crops, grown as sole crops, in association or in rotation (particularly after sugar cane). Cropping methods that are included in organic farming specifications, such as rotation and soil conditioning associations, are already used in these systems, at least in limited form. The basis is there, and if better organised and more systematically used could improve productivity. However, yams are a costly product in Martinique, even when grown by conventional methods; production is in decline and imports have been increasing for some years. This, in addition to the fact that even non-organic yams cost more than potatoes, suggests that organic tuber prices would be under severe pressure.

99Organic market gardening is also technically possible. In Martinique, farmers in the Bio des Antilles association have already begun. However, pests, diseases and weeds result in high production costs. Multiple cropping, if possible combined with livestock raising, would be best to develop these crops, to reduce crop health problems and improve soil fertility management.

100Disease is a serious obstacle to organic fruit production in orchards. As integrated pest management is difficult to implement and is still largely based on the use of crop protection chemicals, the experts recommend developing organic fruit production by introducing fruit trees into other production systems rather than planting organic orchards. Producing organic seedling does not seem to raise any problems for local species and varieties. It would doubtless be more of a problem with citrus species, which are produced from selected virus-free stock and protected from re-contamination by insect barriers.

101While organic pineapple production seems to be technically feasible in Martinique, it would have to be in a more diversified system than the present monocrop system. From the agronomic viewpoint, organic alternatives for fertiliser use and crop protection are still at the experimental stage and will need considerable further research and adaptation. Difficulties include the need for large amounts of organic matter and labour for weeding, and the ban on hormones (if hormones are not used, flowering is staggered and fruit quality uneven). These problems are likely to dissuade traditional pineapple growers from converting to organics for the export and processing markets, for economic reasons. Other farmers who have already opted for organics and are growing a variety of crops could certainly add pineapple to their range of fresh produce, for the local market to start with and later perhaps for export, if their output proved to be regular and of high quality.

Developing organic livestock in association with crop production

102Livestock farming in Martinique includes professional stock farmers, mixed crop and livestock farmers, and people who own a few animals and often also have another job.

103The cattle farming sector includes 200 professional farmers, 2,250 mixed crop and livestock farmers and 2,900 other cattle owners. The cattle sector is the one in which small producers account for the highest proportion of local output.

  • 6 SCACOM: Société Coopérative Agricole Caprine et Ovine de Martinique.

104In most cases sheep and goat farming is not a household's main activity. It is combined with cattle raising, crop farming and/or a non-farm activity. There are a few large farms grazing their stock on natural savannah without feed supplements; most of these farmers belong to the SCACOM6 cooperative.

  • 7 COOPMAR: Coopérative Porcine de Martinique.

105Family pig farming involves two or three sows of the local breed (Creole pig) or mixed breed, fed on crop waste and household waste. The specialist pig farms are focused around COOPMAR7. These farms feed their pigs on grain bought from the island's only feed factory and sorting rejects of banana, which indicates a practical possibility for combining pig farming with cropping.

106There is little local poultry production, since the feed has to be imported and is therefore expensive. Although poultry consumption is increasing fast and accounts for more than half of Martinique's meat consumption, locally produced broilers only cover 5 to 10 % of consumption. The problem of feed importing is also a limitation for developing intensive organic poultry farming, whether for meat or fresh eggs.

107All the cattle farms encounter health problems with ticks and strongyles. With sheep and goats raised on a small scale, animal health is often neglected, with farmers using neither vermifuges nor acaricides.

108Creole cattle breeds are poorly productive but are well suited to local environmental conditions. The best way forward for farmers would seem to be to optimise these breeds with a breeding plan or by crossing them with other breeds. Local sheep breeds and the Martinik sheep developed by INRA are well adapted to local conditions, as is the Creole pig.

109For all these species, a short product chain without recourse to the abattoir is common practice. For sheep, 90 % of output is sold either direct to the consumer or to a local butcher, with the cooperative selling about 10 % of local market volume. Most family-raised pigs are slaughtered at home, for family consumption and/or customers in the neighbourhood. The lack of veterinary monitoring is a problem for this marketing pattern.

110The place of all these livestock species in organic production systems is not to be underestimated (locally adapted breeds, meat much appreciated by consumers for festive occasions, breeds of interest to the research community). Apart from the possibility of converting the large farms in the south of the island, which are already based on extensive grazing, organic livestock farming should mainly be developed as a complement to organic cropping. The animals then serve two purposes, producing meat and providing manure for the land.

111However, for marketing beyond the local market, organic certification under European regulations is likely to be difficult. It would also be difficult to sell organic meat at higher prices than non-organic local meat. One solution might be to establish certification for ecological farming, with a recognised set of specifications. The annual research conference on organic farming in the Caribbean and Central America is working in this direction. The 2004 conference was organised by INCA (Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas) in Cuba, under the title Il encuentro mesoamericano y del caribe de agricultores experimentadores y técnicos en produccion organica (www.inca.edu.cu).

112Integrated solutions involving a single farm or more than one should also be considered. Under this type of system all or part of the feed could be produced locally (cassava, banana etc.) and the animals would produce the compost that is much sought after for some local crops.

Consequences of definitions of organic farming

Technical specifications for organic farming

113It is not prohibited under European regulations to use a monocrop system or a specialist livestock system in organic farming, and many farmers do this. However, in view of Martinique's particular limitations with regard to management of soil fertility, weeds and crop and animal health, it is advisable to base production systems on a combination of crops, either in rotation or in association, and perhaps with livestock or tree crops as well.

114Few sources in the literature describe organic tropical farming systems in situations similar to Martinique's. Farmers seeking to convert to organics and whom the experts met during the study emphasised the serious lack of accessible technical references. They are often reduced to experimenting on their own, without the support of a structured technical network.

115Developing technical protocols for OF in Martinique should be a research priority. It should focus on cropping systems rather than individual crops. Management of weeds, soil fertility, pests and diseases should take into account rotation, agronomic methods (mulching with plant waste such as bagasse, thermal weeding, solarisation, plant barriers between plots, resistant varieties, production of healthy nursery plants) and the use of products permitted in OF.

116In the Martiniquan context, organic sugar cane production could be a central technical opportunity. It would be a pivotal crop in the rotation for many possible systems. Organic methods pose few problems for sugar cane, which also produces useful inputs for OF. The Galion plantations and refinery already receives state subsidies and so offers potential for a public sector initiative. This could include a proactive policy of support for growers, conversion of the refinery to organics, utilisation of by-products for local OF-approved inputs supply chains, and spotlighting the policy with appropriate communication targeting the island's population and tourists. The partial analyses examined in the course of the expert review lead us to recommend a detailed study of this possibility, starting with a precise technical and economic feasibility study. Sugar cane would then be the spearhead of a policy on OF, using an emblematic product to give that policy a high profile among local people and the tourist population.

Networking for organic farming in Martinique

117The panel's research for this expert review shows that there is a large body of scientific knowledge that can be utilised to develop OF in Martinique and a large number of potential resource people with skills that can be mobilised. Participation in active research and innovation networks is possible. However, at present these potentially useful resources are scattered and not organised to be efficiently used for the purposes of developing production.

118A networking initiative "for organic farming in Martinique" could be very helpful for designing appropriate production systems.

119Bibliographical sources can provide ideas and could be made available to researchers, other stakeholders in the product chains and even interested consumers, via a virtual resource on the Internet and/or a physical resource. The CD-ROM produced for this review could provide a starting point.

120Partial research results obtained in Martinique or the Caribbean region (particularly Guadeloupe), e.g. on crop health, could be systematically catalogued and the researchers who have done the work brought together to define R&D programmes for OF.

121Research and innovation results obtained by the Department experimental station at SECI and by CIRAD in collaboration with agricultural high schools could be put to good use through documents and training courses for farmers.

122Farmers currently developing OF in Martinique could be regularly invited to present their results and technical problems to technicians, researchers and teachers, so that together they can consider possible solutions and/or necessary research.

123Although Martinique's Creole gardens have changed considerably, they are still an important source of information. Originally developed with no use of external inputs, they are well adapted to the local ecology. In their original form they comply with OF requirements and they embody its main principles. Although they do not constitute a model for OF today, research could be conducted in collaboration with the growers to record and capitalise the agronomic basis of this tradition, which may otherwise be lost. This would mean researchers and farmers working together to record the varieties grown, crop associations, methods etc. Using modern agronomic knowledge, the tradition could be used as a basis for developing organics and generating agricultural innovations from a uniquely Martiniquan cultural and technical heritage.

124There are already OF networks at the national level (FNAB, CRAB with INRA, MAAPAR). There are Caribbean networks, and the worldwide IFOAM network. The development of Martiniquan OF can benefit from membership of these networks, earning wider knowledge and recognition of specific Martiniquan characteristics. One point that could be examined in Martinique is the suitability of developing an appropriate form of certification for smallholders: group certification and/or participatory certification.

125Organic farmers in the Bio de Antilles association are developing their own farming methods as they work. This way they have found a number of technical solutions that enable them to produce organic and earn a living from it. Orgapéyi farmers have a similar approach for their uncertified produce. Research could learn from the systems developed in this way and work to improve them, e.g. by developing a network of organic farms based on a variety of systems, which would receive technical support. The role of research would be to design technical protocols and help farmers with their innovations. Initiatives of this kind have already been taken in Martinique, by CIRAD in a programme of support for farmers diversifying production, and by INRA with livestock farmers.

Notes

1 Agence Bio: French agency for the development of organic farming. A partnership involving the Agriculture Ministry, the Environment Ministry, the Chambers of Agriculture, the Organic Farmers' Federation, etc.

2 See IFOAM's position on smallholder group certification for organic production and processing (www.ifoam.org).

3 Synthetic chemicals, particularly antibiotics, can be used in exceptional circumstances.

4 Pheromone confusion: lures containing pheromones of one sex of a given pest species are used confuse members of the other sex and so prevent them from reproducing.

5 Ecocert apparently allows tissue-cultured nursery banana plants in OF as an exemption , provided planting is preceded by a three-year fallow period. Under current European regulations, the application for exemption should be renewed annually.

6 SCACOM: Société Coopérative Agricole Caprine et Ovine de Martinique.

7 COOPMAR: Coopérative Porcine de Martinique.

Table des illustrations

Titre Table 6 - European regulations on organic farming
Légende Note 7. LU: livestock unit.
URL http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/docannexe/image/2783/img-1.jpg
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Titre Table 7 - Proposed nomenclature for modes of agricultural production according to their degree of investment in environmental protection
URL http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/docannexe/image/2783/img-2.jpg
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Titre Table 8 - Advantages and limitations for organic farming in Martinique
URL http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/docannexe/image/2783/img-3.jpg
Fichier image/jpeg, 448k
URL http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/docannexe/image/2783/img-4.jpg
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URL http://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/docannexe/image/2783/img-5.jpg
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