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    Plan

    Plan détaillé Texte intégral Introduction Main processes and factors of desertification: surface crusting, runoff and water erosion Tillage erosion Wind erosion Salinization Main principles of desertification control and land rehabilitation: underlying ecological conditions and processes Considering the socioeconomic context Conclusions Bibliographie Auteurs

    The Mediterranean region under climate change

    Ce livre est recensé par

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    Table des matières

    Sub-chapter 3.5.2. Soils and desertification in the Mediterranean region

    Houcine Khatteli, Rafat Ramadan Ali, Gilles Bergametti, Christel Bouet, Mohamed Hachicha, Baelhadj Hamdi-Aissa, Mohamed Labiadh, Jean-Pierre Montoroi, Pascal Podwojewski, Jean-Louis Rajot, Alaa Mohamed Zaghloul et Christian Valentin

    p. 617-625

    Texte intégral Bibliographie References Auteurs

    Texte intégral

    Introduction

    1The Mediterranean region – and more specifically North Africa – have been subject to climate change throughout the period 1860-2005 (Mariotti et al. 2015). Simulations predict an average rise in annual temperatures of more than 2 °C with more intense heat waves. Precipitation is projected to decrease compared to 1980–2005 especially in Spain, Morocco, Tunisia and parts of the Middle East region. This is expected to modify soil temperature and soil water content, and consequently pedoclimate. Desertification processes can increase not only due to climate change and population growth but also as a result of ever more pronounced edaphic aridification processes (Floret and Pontanier, 1984).

    2In the Mediterranean zone, soils are usually much shallower than in the humid tropics and the temperate zone where pedogenesis is faster and erosion less ancient. In some part of the Mediterranean region, accelerated erosion was initiated several thousands of years ago (Butzer, 2005). Shallow soils with low nutrients and water storage capacity are a major constraint to natural vegetation and crop cover, which in turn affords a weak protection to soils from water and wind erosion.

    3The objective of this paper is to present a short review of (i) the main soil degradation (i.e. desertification) processes in the Mediterranean zone including water, wind and tillage erosion, and salinization; (ii) some soil management principles to combat land degradation and favour soil rehabilitation.

    Main processes and factors of desertification: surface crusting, runoff and water erosion

    4Due to water scarcity, which limits biomass production, the soil organic matter of arid and semi-arid zones remains low, especially in sandy soils. As a result, exposed layers have low structural stability and physical crusts develop rapidly even under low quantity of rainfall (Valentin and Bresson, 1992). These crusts reduce infiltration and favour runoff (Podwojewski et al. 2011) even when these physical crusts are colonized by cyanobacteriae (Malam Issa et al. 2011). They also tend to promote sheet erosion and gully erosion downhill (Valentin et al. 2005). These crusts can be destroyed by trampling and tillage (Bertrand et al. 2014) but form again rapidly under rainfall.

    Tillage erosion

    5Tillage erosion is the downslope displacement of soil through tillage. It mainly affects steep and convex slopes (Kosmas et al. 2001) and is often expressed by lighter-coloured soils than adjacent downhill soils (Photo 1). Due to the often steep cultivated slopes in the Mediterranean region, soil loss rates due to tillage erosion cannot be neglected (Benmansour et al. 2013) especially where tillage started a few thousand years ago (Butzer, 2005). Tillage erosion is therefore one of the major contributors to the variation of soil depth and properties in Mediterranean agricultural landscapes.

    Image

    Photo 1
    Tillage erosion evidenced by light coloured truncated soils, Mateur, northern Tunisia. Tillage erosion is a cumulative process and can have been initiated over on thousand years ago in this region. C.Valentin.

    Wind erosion

    6Wind erosion is a threat in the arid areas of the Mediterranean region where the wind is often strong and the vegetation sparse. The type of soil also plays a major role since the most sandy soils are also the most prone to wind erosion (Khatteli 1996) whilst, due to low runoff volume and velocity, sheet and gully erosion remain limited. No coarse fragments increase the surface roughness of sandy soils, and the physical crust that develops when it rains does not significantly decrease wind erosion (Rajot et al. 2003), unlike crusts developed on more loamy soils (Belnap and Gillette, 1998). On the other hand, these sandy soils are the most efficient in stocking available water for plant growth (Floret and Pontanier 1984) so that, in undisturbed conditions, the vegetation cover that develops creates effective protection against wind erosion. Wind erosion increases when vegetation cover is decreased. As an example, soil losses reach very high levels when vegetation is removed a part of the year for cereal cropping (Houyou et al. 2014, Abdourhamane Touré et al. 2015). In olive groves, soil is kept bare by regular tillage to stop the vertical connectivity of pores and limit the capillary rise of residual soil moisture of the deeper horizons. Tillage severely depletes soil organic matter content. This favours the formation of microdunes high enough to render ploughing difficult (Photo 2). For the same type of soil, the type of plough used has also a significant effect on soil losses (see Bergametti et al. in this volume). Human activities currently create unsustainable levels of wind erosion on sandy steppe rangelands, which should incite policy makers not to allow their cultivation.

    Image

    Photo 2
    Olive grove on sandy soil, just after rainfall, region of Medenine, South of Tunisia, the dunes, up to 2m height, appeared after ploughing of the sandy soil. G. Hovhannissian.

    Salinization

    7Salinization develops in time and space due to the gradual accumulation of soluble salts – whatever their nature–in or near the soil surface (saline crusts or efflorescences). Some salts, especially sodium salts, favour clay dispersion, degrade soil structure and hamper water infiltration. The processes of soil salinization and sodication are complex, occurring at all latitudes and in all climates, and are closely linked to the flow processes of surface and ground waters (Ghassemi et al. 1995; Montoroi et al. 2002; Hamdi-Aissa et al. 2004; Ali et al. 2016). Many natural factors generate soluble salts and their concentration (weathering and dissolution of rock and soil minerals, geothermal sources, decomposition of dead organisms, drying wind), transport (rain, rivers, groundwater, sea water, wind) and accumulation in soils (arid climate, temporary droughts), near the sea in coastal and delta areas, near a shallow saltwater table, aeolian deposits (sea spray, aerosols), endoreic zones (sebkhas, chotts). A so-called «secondary» salinization is induced by anthropogenic causes: mismanaged irrigation, old irrigation techniques, irrigation with waters rich in salts, deforestation, fertilizers containing potassium and nitrogen salts, atmospheric deposition near industrial sites. Above a given threshold of soil salinity, plant growth, crop production, water and soil quality are severely affected up leading to accelerated soil erosion and land degradation or ecosystem desertification (Gorji et al. 2015).

    8The soils of Mediterranean countries are particularly affected by salinization (Photo 3) because of the semi-arid to arid climate and the development of intensive irrigation for agriculture by building many storage and irrigation schemes (dams, hillside dams, canals and water distribution pipes). The consequences of climate change (increased rainfall variability and water scarcity, freshwater evaporation increase and higher plant evapotranspiration rates) will result in a concentration of soluble salts in the water bodies and the extension of soil salinization. The predicted sea level rise by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios will impact coastal areas and wetlands (deltas of major rivers like the Danube, the Ebro, the Mejerdah, the Nile, the Po and the Rhone) and promote the saline contamination of coastal aquifers due to sea water intrusion. The overexploitation of upper fragile fresh water lenses overlaying denser brackish aquifers will intensify with the increased needs for agricultural, industrial, touristic and domestic activities which are mainly located along the coast (Kuper et al. 2009; Ashour and Al-Najar, 2012; Mansour and Hachicha, 2014).

    Image

    Photo 3
    Irrigated pomegranate crop in the clayey and saline soils of the Kairouan alluvial plain (Central Tunisia). The drip system is placed on the ridges for optimal water supply and salt leaching. The white spots (salt efflorescence) correspond to the highest soil salinity, where the trees are dead. The inter-ridges are ploughed to promote rainwater infiltration into the soil and prevent the invasion of weeds. J.-P. Montoroi.

    Main principles of desertification control and land rehabilitation: underlying ecological conditions and processes

    9A cover must be kept at soil surface to prevent crusting, water and wind erosion. To reduce the risks of tillage erosion, tillage operations and tillage depth should be limited. No-till agriculture associated with permanent cover is only possible where rainfall regimes allow sufficient biomass production. No-till farming can be very effective in reducing water erosion and runoff production at the plot scale. Attention must be paid on the plot length to reduce the risk of gully erosion.

    10In dry Mediterranean zones (annual rainfall <300 mm) where vegetation cover cannot be continuous in space and time, the ubiquitous crusts should not be considered as a symptom of desertification because they are essential elements of arid and semi-arid zones. They favour natural water-harvesting through runoff-runon processes (Valentin and d’Herbès, 1999; Assouline et al. 2015). A wide range of water harvesting techniques has been developed for centuries in dry Mediterranean zone to enable crop and fodder production. Many of them, for example Jessour (photo 4) in southern Tunisia or micro-catchments in Israel (Zhang et al. 2013) are still in use and should be encouraged.

    Image

    Photo 4
    Jessour of the Dahars Range, Béni Khedache Road. Mean annual rainfall of 215 mm (period 1949-2001; Kallel, 2001), Average maximal temperature: 35.9°C (August period 1990-1996, Ouessar et al. 2006). C. Bouet.

    Considering the socioeconomic context

    11The abovementioned biophysical processes interact with many human decisions and constraints, including land users and policy makers. Both levels are crucial to lead to a successful control of desertification processes and soil rehabilitation. The top-down approach of terraces, check dams, deep drilling and reforestation has usually led to failures because the lack of involvement and interest of the land users. More success is expected through participatory and incentive approaches (De Graaf et al. 2013).

    Conclusions

    12Climate change associated with land use changes in the Mediterranean region are expected to induce a major latitudinal shift of the pedoclimatic zones, resulting not only from the changes in climatic averages, but also from the higher frequency of extreme events (rain and wind storms, drought, long dry spells, heat waves...), and higher seasonal and inter-annual variability. These changes should render the already shallow soils even more vulnerable to various degradation processes (tillage, water and wind erosion, salinization) favouring a desertification spiral. To hamper these alarming changes, adaptation and innovative policies should be based on a sound knowledge of the interacting processes and consider the successful practices of soil and water conservation developed in more arid regions, especially those which have been readily adopted by land-users.

    Bibliographie

    Des DOI sont automatiquement ajoutés aux références bibliographiques par Bilbo, l’outil d’annotation bibliographique d’OpenEdition. Ces références bibliographiques peuvent être téléchargées dans les formats APA, Chicago et MLA.

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    K. Ashour, E. (2012). The Impact of Climate Change and Soil Salinity in Irrigation Water Demand in the Gaza Strip. In Journal of Earth Science &amp;amp; Climatic Change (Vols. 03, Issues 02). OMICS Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000120
    HAMDI-AISSA, B., VALLES, V., AVENTURIER, A., & RIBOLZI, O. (2004). Soils and Brine Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hyperarid Desert Playa, Ouargla Basin, Algerian Sahara. In Arid Land Research and Management (Vols. 18, Issues 2, pp. 103-126). Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/1532480490279656
    Kuper, M., Bouarfa, S., Errahj, M., Faysse, N., Hammani, A., Hartani, T., Marlet, S., Zairi, A., Bahri, A., Debbarh, A., Garin, P., Jamin, J., & Vincent, B. (2009). A crop needs more than a drop: Towards a new praxis in irrigation management in North Africa. In Irrigation and Drainage (Vols. 58, Issue S3). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.533
    K. Ashour, Ehab. “The Impact of Climate Change and Soil Salinity in Irrigation Water Demand in the Gaza Strip”. Journal of Earth Science &amp;Amp; Climatic Change. OMICS Publishing Group, 2012. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000120.
    HAMDI-AISSA, BELHADJ, VINCENT VALLES, ALAIN AVENTURIER, and OLIVIER RIBOLZI. “Soils and Brine Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hyperarid Desert Playa, Ouargla Basin, Algerian Sahara”. Arid Land Research and Management. Informa UK Limited, April 2004. https://doi.org/10.1080/1532480490279656.
    Kuper, M., S. Bouarfa, M. Errahj, N. Faysse, A. Hammani, T. Hartani, S. Marlet, et al. “A Crop Needs More Than a Drop: Towards a New Praxis in Irrigation Management in North Africa”. Irrigation and Drainage. Wiley, July 2009. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.533.
    K. Ashour, Ehab. “The Impact of Climate Change and Soil Salinity in Irrigation Water Demand in the Gaza Strip”. Journal of Earth Science &amp;Amp; Climatic Change, vol. 03, no. 02, OMICS Publishing Group, 2012. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000120.
    HAMDI-AISSA, BELHADJ, et al. “Soils and Brine Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hyperarid Desert Playa, Ouargla Basin, Algerian Sahara”. Arid Land Research and Management, vol. 18, no. 2, Informa UK Limited, Apr. 2004, pp. 103-26. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.1080/1532480490279656.
    Kuper, M., et al. “A Crop Needs More Than a Drop: Towards a New Praxis in Irrigation Management in North Africa”. Irrigation and Drainage, vol. 58, no. S3, Wiley, July 2009. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.533.

    Cette bibliographie a été enrichie de toutes les références bibliographiques automatiquement générées par Bilbo en utilisant Crossref.

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    Auteurs

    • Houcine Khatteli

      IRA, Tunisia
      Ecologist, Institut des Régions Arides, Médenine, Tunisia
      h.khatteli@ira.rnrt.tn

    • Rafat Ramadan Ali

      Soils and Water Use Department, National Research Centre, Egypt
      Soil scientist, Soils and Water Use Department, National Research Centre, Egypt
      bediertop@yahoo.com

    • Gilles Bergametti

      IPSL, CNRS, France
      Aeolian erosion, Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA), Université Paris-Est-Créteil-Val-de-Marne, Université Paris Diderot-CNRS, France
      gilles.bergametti@lisa.u-pec.fr

    • Christel Bouet

      IPSL, IRD, France,
      Aeolian erosion, Institut d’Écologie et des Sciences de l’Environnement, IRD, Bondy, France
      christel.bouet@ird.fr

    • Mohamed Hachicha

      IRNGREF, Tunisia
      Management of water and irrigated soils, Institut National des Recherches en Génie Rural, Eaux et Forêts, Tunisia
      hachicha.mohamed@iresa.agrinet.tn

    • Baelhadj Hamdi-Aissa

      University of Ouargla, Algeria
      Soil scientist, University of Ouargla, Algeria
      hamdi_30@yahoo.fr

    • Mohamed Labiadh

      IRA, Tunisia
      Atmospheric geophysicist, IRA, Institut des Régions Arides, Tunisia
      mohamed.labiadh@ira.rnrt.tn

    • Jean-Pierre Montoroi

      IRD, France
      Soil scientist, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France
      jean-pierre.montoroi@ird.fr

    • Pascal Podwojewski

      IRA, Tunisia/IRD, France
      Soil scientist, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France
      pascal.podwojewski@ird.fr

    • Jean-Louis Rajot

      IRA, Tunisia/IRD, France
      Soil scientist, Institut d’Écologie et des Sciences de l’Environnement, IRD, Bondy, France Laboratoire d’Erémologie et de Lutte contre la Désertification, Institut des Régions Arides, Médenine Tunisia
      jeanlouis.rajot@ird.fr

    • Alaa Mohamed Zaghloul

      Soils and Water Use Department, National Research Centre, Egypt
      Soil scientist, Soils and Water Use Department, National Research Centre, Egypt
      alaazaghloul2002@yahoo.com

    • Christian Valentin

      IRD, France
      Soil scientist, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), France
      christian.valentin@ird.fr

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    Voir plus de chapitres

    Préface

    Jacques Claude et Houcine Khatteli

    Chapitre VI. La transformation du milieu : facteurs et acteurs

    Mariline Bâ, Christian Chaboud, Jean-Paul Barusseau et al.

    Chapitre II. Les écosystèmes à mangrove

    Daniel Guiral, Jean-Jacques Albaret, Éric Baran et al.

    Chapter 4. Air quality and climate in the Mediterranean region

    François Dulac, Eric Hamonou, Charbel Afif et al.

    Voir plus de chapitres
    1 / 4

    Préface

    Jacques Claude et Houcine Khatteli

    Chapitre VI. La transformation du milieu : facteurs et acteurs

    Mariline Bâ, Christian Chaboud, Jean-Paul Barusseau et al.

    Chapitre II. Les écosystèmes à mangrove

    Daniel Guiral, Jean-Jacques Albaret, Éric Baran et al.

    Chapter 4. Air quality and climate in the Mediterranean region

    François Dulac, Eric Hamonou, Charbel Afif et al.

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    The Mediterranean region under climate change

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    The Mediterranean region under climate change

    Ce livre est cité par

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    • Sayahi, Naima. Djemal, Rania. Ben Merdes, Khaireddine. Saidii, Mohamed Najib. Yengui, Mariem. Gdoura, Radhouan. Ebel, Chantal. Aydi, Samir. Mechichi, Tahar. Hanin, Moez. (2022) Characterization of Siccibacter sp. Strain C2 a Novel Rhizobacterium that Enhances Tolerance of Barley to Salt Stress. Current Microbiology, 79. DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-02930-5

    The Mediterranean region under climate change

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    Khatteli, H., Ramadan Ali, R., Bergametti, G., Bouet, C., Hachicha, M., Hamdi-Aissa, B., Labiadh, M., Montoroi, J.-P., Podwojewski, P., Rajot, J.-L., Mohamed Zaghloul, A., & Valentin, C. (2016). Sub-chapter 3.5.2. Soils and desertification in the Mediterranean region. In J.-P. Moatti & S. Thiébault (éds.), The Mediterranean region under climate change (1‑). IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.23994
    Khatteli, Houcine, Rafat Ramadan Ali, Gilles Bergametti, Christel Bouet, Mohamed Hachicha, Baelhadj Hamdi-Aissa, Mohamed Labiadh, et al. « Sub-Chapter 3.5.2. Soils and Desertification in the Mediterranean Region ». In The Mediterranean Region under Climate Change, édité par Jean-Paul Moatti et Stéphane Thiébault. Marseille: IRD Éditions, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.23994.
    Khatteli, Houcine, et al. « Sub-Chapter 3.5.2. Soils and Desertification in the Mediterranean Region ». The Mediterranean Region under Climate Change, édité par Jean-Paul Moatti et Stéphane Thiébault, IRD Éditions, 2016, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.23994.

    Référence numérique du livre

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    Moatti, J.-P., & Thiébault, S. (éds.). (2016). The Mediterranean region under climate change (1‑). IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.22908
    Moatti, Jean-Paul, et Stéphane Thiébault, éd. The Mediterranean Region under Climate Change. Marseille: IRD Éditions, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.22908.
    Moatti, Jean-Paul, et Stéphane Thiébault, éditeurs. The Mediterranean Region under Climate Change. IRD Éditions, 2016, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.22908.
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