Gnosis and the Transmission of Knowledge: The Example of the Brass Casters’ Guild in Benin
p. 45-53
Texte intégral
1The art of Benin, particularly the metal arts, have brought Benin into the limelight internationally because of the artistry displayed by the group of craftsmen who produced these works. The guild of brass casters was known as the Iguneronmwon. According to oral traditions made popular by Jacob Egharevba, the art was introduced in 1280 during the reign of Oba Oguola:
Oba Oguola wished to introduce brass casting into Benin similar to various works of art sent him from Uhe (Ile-Ife). He therefore sent to the Oghene of Uhe for a brass smith and Igue-gha was sent to him. Igue-gha was very clever and left many designs to his successor and was in consequence deified and is worshipped to this day by brasssmiths. The practice of making brass castings was originated during the reign of Oguola.1
2Although the origin of casting seems to be shrouded in uncertainty, so far this version appears to be the most authentic. Scholars have based their interpretation and analysis of Benin art on it. However, it reveals that the transmission of knowledge from very early could have occurred interculturally.
3There were several artists’ guilds in Benin. Of all these guilds, that of the casters was the most important. This in part derives from the significance attached to metal itself. Metal was synonymous with the god of iron and thus possessed’ mystical powers with the potential to create and destroy.2 Such a medium was, therefore, reserved for royalty. All metals such as iron, copper, and its alloys brass and bronze were regarded as the ultimate in artistic materials. The guild of casters was a stratified one comprising several family lineages headed by the Ine n ’Iguneronmwon. Included among these were the Ihama, Ehanire, Obadolaye, Akenzua, Ebagua, Olague, Obasoyen Obasogie, Osasomwonyenmwen and Odebiauwu families. All members paid allegiance to the Ine n ’Iguneronmwon, who was the general overseer and mediator between the artists and the king. He catered for the artists, settling disputes that arose between them, and he also represented them at meetings.
Acquisition of divine knowledge
4In Edo cosmology, divine knowledge and inspiration were derived from the gods or from ancestors. They were the ultimate sources of designs and inspiration for the artist. For example. Olokun is associated with beauty and creativity. It is also associated with the provision of children, goodluck and wealth. More importantly, Egharevba claims that:
it is a god of inspiration and idealism and works upon the hidden spirit of man. Those who come under his influence are original, often eccentric, usually of highly sensitive natures and may be geniuses in one line or another.3
5The schema of transmission of this divine knowledge begins with the gods. Knowledge was channelled through the Oba, who was regarded as a god-king, to the various lineage heads and down to the individual artists. There could also be direct transmission of knowledge from the gods directly to the artists through dreams or in a state of trance. Patterns, designs and skills in general were gifts from the ancestors. This belief in inspiration from above made the craftsmen venerate and appease the gods in order to gain continued support and sustenance of the artistic charge. In addition, the craftsmen asked for protection against accidents during operations, as the tools that they worked with were made of metal and thus needed to be spiritually prepared and dedicated to Ogun (the god of iron). Other gods worshipped were Ehi, Edion and Igueghae. Ehi is a personal deity or guardian spirit while Edion represents the ancestors of the brasscasters. Igueghae is the patron deity whose shrine is situated in Igun Street where the casters work and reside.
Mode of learning within the guild system
6The age-long method of imparting artistic knowledge was from father to son within the established family line. In this way all male children were expected to learn the art from a tender age. Various methods of metalworking were shown to the young apprentices by way of demonstration. Thomas observes that a boy is apprenticed to a master from a very tender age.4 He begins with very simple tasks, such as making models for ‘small hawk bells’ worn by children. Learning was carried out by imitating or copying what the master had done. There was really no room for individual innovation. Patterns were passed on from generation to generation without significant changes to the original form. Just as in the sister guild, the Igbesanmwan or carvers guìld, the traditional caster to a large extent abhorred changes in the established norms and patterns. The ‘artists saw themselves as possessing a set of patterns and forms that belonged to them and defined them as a group’.5 Thus a general pool of designs was available to the artists regardless of guild affiliation. An example is the guilloche design, a set of intertwining ropelike patterns which Dark points out can be found in expressions in wood, ivory and metal.6
7Allusions to the importance of maintaining already established canons are found in a verse chanted by the Igbesanmwan. The philosophy behind this verse holds sway for the Iguneronmwon as well.
Ughe n’Owewe, ancestors, let us be prosperous
Do not let us forget the patterns that we make
Don’t let our children forget them
Let the Oba who assigned it to us also prosper
Let his children be prosperous, as well as his wives
Let the town be prosperous
Let this quarter to which it was assigned continue
To grow and greatly increase
Let the Oba remember always to favour us.7
8This prayer establishes the fact that these patterns were used over and over again with the intention of establishing continuity in the artistic tradition. The success of a work depended on the memory of the artist and his ability to apply the designs in his work.8 Some of these patterns and forms, which may appear as mere decorative motifs, possess deep philosophical meanings. An example of this is seen in the manner in which certain kings were represented. Oba Ohen, a king who reigned in the fourteenth century, was paralyzed. Because of this deformity, he was the first to appear and the last to leave the court. In Edo belief, the Oba is seen as a god who does not possess any human attribute. Thus, such earthly observations are couched in metaphorical terms. In the art, Oba Ohen is depicted as a king, half human at the top and half fish below, with the legs forming the fish image to mask his deformity. The artists grew up to learn of such events and to appreciate the deep layers and undertones of meanings embedded in iconographic details such that a deviation from the norm was seen more as weakness rather than strength.
9Teaching was done in a systematic fashion. A lot of the work done in the foundry was actually routine. One step led to another. There were certain ways in which cores were built so that it was easy to decipher what was intended as the final form. In fact, if an artist left off on a work, another artist could bring the work to completion. This was possible because there was a laid down format, a sequence which, even when unspoken, was understood by the artists. The recipes for the moulds, cores and crucibles were the same over time. Since the artist performed these tasks ever so often, within a short time he mastered all that he had to learn.9 Even after becoming a master the artist remained in the same workshop to teach the new intakes.
10The division of labour was another factor in this system. Specific tasks were assigned to families according to the skills they possessed. The Ehanire, Akenuwa and Obadolaye families were responsible for making the ancestral memorial heads or Uhunmwun-Elao. The Olague family made the Ukhure or rattle staff and the Ine made the Aseberia or rectangular altarpiece and any other work that proved challenging.10 This appeared to be the situation before the British struck in 1897.
11During the British punitive expedition lots of brass works were stolen from shrines in the palace. The city was set ablaze and the king exiled to Calabar. People fled the city for safety. The whole atmosphere became unconducive for any creative endeavour.
The new workshop experience
12Nevamdomsky11 claims that by 1914, the year Oba Eweka II ascended the throne, brass casting had already become an established tourist industry. Oba Eweka II did a lot to revive the art of casting. He re-established the shrines of his father and so, the artists were needed to make new ritualistic objects. In 1916, a shed was built near the palace for artists to make and sell their works directly to the public.12 By 192 6, this workshop experiment blossomed into a school known as the Benin Divisional Arts and Crafts School run by the British government and administered by the Forestry Department of the Native Authority (NA). This was a new development in the mode of learning, as well as a change in patronage. The artists could now produce for a new clientele. This situation contrasted sharply with what obtained in the past when artists produced items solely for the king. For the first time the brass casters began working outside the palace.
13The incorporation of individuals outside of the guild was another novelty. Apart from guild members, the Emada (the king’s sword bearers) were allowed to participate, though mainly as carvers. They were paid a stipend for their efforts. Jonathan Enabulele Omodamwen, a relative of the king, was brought in by his aunt, Ededa Aguebor, and learnt casting in the new school in the 1920’s. Jonathan Enabulele Omodamwen was born in 1904 and was the contemporary of Igbinovia Idah, who also benefited under this scheme. Jonathan’s grandfather had been a member of the casters’ guild before he was incarcerated over a long period. Jonathan’s re-entry into casting under the tutelage of Chief P. O. Inneh, the Ine ni Igun, is interesting in that he re-established his family’s link with the \guneromwon, which was lost when his grandfather went on a self-imposed exile. He worked in the palace until shortly before Oba Akenzua II became king in 1933. In 1931, Jonathan left the king’s court and moved into his house at 7 Oloton Street in Benin. There, he built a foundry and gradually introduced his sons to the art. Today, apart from the Iguneromwon, the next most famous family of casters in Benin is the Omodamwen family. It comprises the sons and grandsons of Jonathan Enabulele who continue to cast using both old and new methods.13
14The artists were taught as before but in a more relaxed atmosphere. Artists began to experiment with new materials, themes and concepts. The whole impetus surrounding the production of the art changed. In 1938, the Ine was sent to Achimota College, Ghana to learn new methods of casting, such as the use of silicone rubber and plaster of Paris for reproduction. He in turn taught the Benin version of the Cire-Perdue at the school. He returned to head the Benin Divisional Art and Crafts School and taught the other guild members what he had learnt in Ghana.14 The artists continued to produce works for new clients, mainly tourists and businessmen, who were obsessed with the old corpus stolen from the city. Thus, they began to copy from postcards, photographs, and catalogues, images produced by their predecessors because of the high demand for them. Their intention was to replicate the classical Benin art forms. In some cases, the newly produced works were artificially patinated, the intention being to sell them as authentic antiquities to undiscerning tourists. During the period of the oil boom, rich businessmen and individuals putting up residential and office buildings adorned them with art works. Some of the clients came to the now open workshops of the artists with specifications on what was to be made. From then onwards, the artist added these concepts to the already existing pool of designs. In this manner there was a direct link and contact with the clients and the exchange of ideas was more freely done in that kind of atmosphere. The increased wealth and improved social status of the artists triggered new expressions.
The art school experience
15One remarkable change in the traditional apprenticeship system of imparting knowledge came about with the establishment of the Department of Fine Arts in the University of Benin in 1975. The pioneering staff were mainly expatriates and included C. Todd and Marshall Ward Mount. The students were taught various concepts in the arts under a curriculum tailored to the British system of education. With the appointment of Irein Wangboje as head of Department in 1978, more foreigners, particularly Americans and American-trained artists, were attracted to the department. These included Clary Nelson-Cole, Norma Rosen, Irma Francis, Doris Rogers and Katherine Krieder. Irein himself had his art training in America. He sought to broaden the curriculum by adding a course popular at the time in American universities: jewellery and silver smithing. From 1981 onwards, under the tutelage of two expatriate staff, John Forsythe and Kweku Adu Mensah, several students were taught subject areas in general metal smithing and metal casting. One interesting fact however, was the appointment of a guild member, Nosakhare Omorbdion, the first son of the Osa family lineage in Igun, as studio attendant in the sculpture section of the Department of Fine Arts. He was to teach the students metal casting using local methods. In the metal design unit, students were exposed to the use of modern equipment: an electric kiln, a centrifugal casting machine and gas-fired furnaces. They learnt sand casting techniques and cuttlefish bone casting, in addition to the Cire-perdue method.
16One of the pioneer products of this system was Elizabeth Olowu, a sculptor, who graduated in 1978. Elizabeth was born to the royal family of Benin in 1939. Her works are important to this discourse and serve as a landmark of female involvement in the art of casting in metal. As a daughter of the king, Oba Akenzua II (1933-1978), she was backed up by the very powers which have, over the centuries, been responsible for enacting and enforcing laws governing the practice of the art.
17Elizabeth claims that she would never have been allowed into the casting profession if her father had not granted his permission. ’In fact, the Oba spoke with the Osa family head at the time and told him to make his foundry available for my research’.15 In Benin, although women have been very active in art production, such as in the making of mud sculptures, painting, pottery and weaving,16 they were barred by religious strictures from working with metal.17 Women are actively involved in the painting of shrine configurations. However, gender differentiation exists when woodwork and metal casting are involved. These professions were left to males who, it was believed, had the spiritual and physical power to manipulate these media. Elizabeth has continued to cast works in metal at her foundry situated at number 125 Sapele Road in Benin. She employs several techniques of metal working and uses modern equipment. Another artist is Kenneth Keith Eboh, popularly known as ‘Scallees: He was not trained in a formal art school but has had training in several workshops, first from the Iguneronwon and then from several other artists within Benin. He has made tremendous contributions to the growth and development of metal casting in Benin. He was born in 1968 to the family of Christopher Omogiate Eboh and Florence Eboh of Ohiodue, Agbazilo Local government area of Edo state. Although Kenneth is an Esan man, he was born and bred in Benin. Kenneth’s involvement in metal casting began in his youth. As a young lad living with his parents at Owina, near Igun, he began an adhoc kind of apprenticeship training with members of the Iguneronmwon family. He admits that he had a close relationship with the children of the casters; they were also his schoolmates. On account of the rapport established between him and the children of various guild members, Kenneth was accepted as one of the children of the compound. Just as the casters’ children were engaged in filing, sanding and core/mould making, so was Kenneth assigned duties. Before long he became adept at the various casting processes. As he showed more interests he was cautioned that, as an outsider, he would not be allowed to become a practising metal caster. The fears of his tutors became a reality when, in 1990, Kenneth began thinking seriously about becoming a full time caster and established one of the biggest foundries at Use/Ogida quarters on the outskirts of Benin.18 The foundry has expanded from the original one furnace to about six or seven rotary furnaces powered by diesel engines and driven by electric blowers. Kenneth runs his outfit strictly on the bases of business devoid of any cultural connotations. He has in his employment several workmen and apprentices from various ethnic backgrounds. To him, their family affiliations carry no weight.
18Kenneth’s training at Igun took place in the family compound of John Aigbe at number 69 Igun Street. Since the art of casting was practised by specific families within a compound, there could be as many as six to seven masters within a workshop. Strong familial relationships brought about strong interactions between all the families within Igun. Despite the fact that he remained mainly John Aigbe’s compound, it was in this kind of atmosphere that Kenneth became exposed to diverse ideas and skills as he worked with these artists, among whom were Willy Ogbebor, Osagie Ugbo and Usibiafo Aigbe. Having acquired enough skills, he sought to improve on his knowledge of other sculptural media. This urge took him to the studio of Felix Idubor. Through Idubor, Kenneth improved on his modelling skills and learnt other production techniques in various media. Although he was not permanently attached to Idubor’s art gallery, the arrangement was such that both artists gained from each other the peculiar skills each of them possessed: Kenneth helped in casting Idubor’s works in metal.
19In the studios of three sculptors, namely, Felix Idubor, Ben Osawe and Duke Igbinedion, Kenneth mastered fully the use of cement, Plaster of Paris, metal filler, fibre glass and silicone rubbers for sculptural production. Apart from Kenneth, several other artists can be found within the city. Many of them were initially apprentices trained under Jonathan Omodanwen or his children. Amongst these are John Aimule and John Ogieriakhi.
20Artistic knowledge has gradually been disseminated far and wide between members of the established guilds and even beyond them to include other individuals. This wealth of exposure, added to individual talents, has revealed a repertoire of ideas incapable of being compartmentalized as either traditional or contemporary. There appears to be a meeting point in the expressions of these artists. This the National Council of Art and Culture acknowledges by bringing together various streams of artists from different training backgrounds to exhibit their works. In 1996 an exhibition titled‘Angles of Benin artistry’was held. It featured the works of the present Ine N’Iguneronwon and other guild artists alongside those of young graduates and lecturers at the University of Benin and Auchi Polytechnic. In 1996, as part of the events marking the Benin centenary celebrations, four main exhibitions were held with a similar structure. Today there appears to be a welter of art associations, which seem to accommodate the creative energies of these artists. Increasingly, the barrier between the training of both schools of artists, namely, the guild artists and the western-trained artists, seems to be breaking down as their works are exhibited side by side. The guild artists now share cultural space with western-trained artists. The relationships between these artists have been inter and intra-cultural. Influences and other forms of artistic knowledge are flowing either way such that, as Nevadomsky observes, all manner of ‘wellsprings and crosscurrents’ can be found in the contemporary art of Benin.19 You may now find:
Mix-and-match motifs (e.g., a fourteenth-century-style head on a twentieth-century-style body), traditional looking plaques or statuettes custom made to fit the alcoves of New York city townhouses, new forms of shrines to the hand, tusk-like castings, monumental statuary for hotel entrances, effigies of tombs and memorials, and furnace grates for German homes20
21While there is a return of the artists trained in the western style to traditional methods and concepts in a bid to portray pan-Africanism and modernism, the guild artists have begun to accommodate foreign ideas and technological advancements in the art of casting. Through interaction with the larger society, clients, individuals and other artists, the artist’s scope has been broadened. He has now been caught up within the mainstream of international art. Currently, there is a breakdown of the rigid social structures found amongst the traditional guild workers. Today the descendants of the Iguneronwon work and live in Igun street. Although a number of them have left the trade, a few still continue to work mainly as independent artists. However, the merits of the mode of transmitting knowledge from generation to generation through the apprenticeship system cannot be overemphasized. This rigid mode had the merit of enabling a long-drawn tradition to remain. Thus, the Iguneronwon have established a metal working tradition on which other artists will continue to build.
Notes de bas de page
1 Egharevba, J. U. A Short History of Benin, Lagos, 1936, p. 18
2 Ben Amos P. The Art of Benin, 2nd Edition, Thames and Hudson, London, 1995, p. 71.
3 Ben-Amos, P. ‘Artistic Creativity in the Benin Kingdom. African Arts, 1986, Vol. 19,3, pp. 60-63.
4 Thomas, N. W. ‘Nigerian Notes’Man, 1918, pp. 100-185.
5 Ben-Amos, op. cit, p. 17.
6 Dark, P. C. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973, p. 72.
7 Ben-Amos, P., “Professional and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving,” McCall, D. F. and Bay, E. G. (eds.), African Images, Essays in African Iconology, New York, 1975, p. 177.
8 Dark, op. cit., p. 42.
9 Personal Interview conducted with Osaize Eliasha Omodamwen, the first son of Jonathan Enabulele Omodamwen, at nos. 7 Oloton Street, Benin, March 1999. Also, this observation was made in my several trips to the workshops at Igun Street where the young craftsmen were observed working.
10 Dark, op. cit, p. 52
11 Nevadomsky, J. “Contemporary Art and Artists in Benin City, ’ African Arts", 1997, 30, 4, p. 55
12 Ibid, p. 56.
13 Jonathan had several children from a polygamous marriage. Interestingly, the art of brasscasting has unified the children who work in a most cordial atmosphere. Today nine of his sons (these include Eliasha, Peter, Lugard, Billy, John, Victor, Osasuwa, Efe and Eguasa Omodanwen and several of their own sons) can be seen working in the foundry.
14 Nevadomsky, op. cit, p. 56.
15 Personal communication with Elizabeth Olowu in her studio nos. 129 Sapele Road, Opposite Coca-cola, Benin city, January 1999.
16 Ben-Amos, op. cit, p. 17
17 Layiwola, A. ‘Gender Tempered Through Metal: Women in Bronze casting in Benin, Nigeria: in Writing African Women: Gender, Popular Culture and Literature in West Africa, (ed.) Stephanie, 1997, p. 192.
18 Personal communication from Kenneth Eboh, 22, Aigbangbee Street, Use/Ogida quarters, Benin City, April 2000.
19 Nevadomsky, op. cit, p. 63.
20 Ibid, p. 61.
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