10

A study of violence-related deaths in Gudu, Gwadabawa and Illela LGAs of Sokoto State, and Sakaba LGA of Kebbi State (2006-2014)

Arshad Munir et Akinola Ejodame Olojo

p. 195-216

Résumé

This paper highlights the outcome of a study on fatal incidents in four LGAs of north-western Nigeria: Gwadabawa, Gudu, and Ilella LGAs in Sokoto State, and Sakaba LGA in Kebbi State. Data obtained from 1,083 questionnaires revealed that, since 2006, the year 2011 had the highest number of fatalities. Between 2006 and 2014, Gudu LGA recorded the highest number of fatalities and violent incidents, while Sakaba LGA had the lowest. For the period under review, the most frequent cause of fatal incidents was cattle grazing, followed by political clashes. Religion, which is often perceived as a major factor of conflict, contributed quite insignificantly to the overall level of violence in the four LGAs, with just a few incidents involving the Yan Shi’a, the Tijaniyya Sufi brotherhood, and the Yan Izala movement. Finally, the study demonstrates that, just as in the urban centres of Sokoto and Kebbi, there are many fatal incidents in rural areas ‑ yet these are unreported. Some explanations for this omission are discussed in relation to poor road infrastructure.


Texte intégral

Introduction and methodology

1One of the primary concerns of the ‘invisible’ violence project of Nigeria Watch is to analyse particular LGAs where fatal incidents appear to have fallen outside the radar of press coverage. The issue is to discover whether this omission results from a dearth of media reports or from an authentic absence of lethal violence. Bearing this framework in mind, the current study investigates ‘invisible’ fatal incidents in Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela LGAs in Sokoto State, and Sakaba LGA in neighbouring Kebbi State.

2Northern Nigeria now offers the general impression of an entire region in crisis. However, some analytical nuance is required to distinguish areas that are indeed rife with violence from those largely undisturbed. Thus the north-western geo-political zone of Nigeria includes a mix of states such as Kano and Kaduna, characterized by occasional-to-recurrent crises, and Zamfara, Sokoto, and Kebbi, which have relatively low-intensity violence. To fine-tune our focus on selected LGAs in Sokoto and Kebbi, two main questions must be asked. First, what is the general character of fatal incidents in Gudu, Gwadabawa, Illela, and Sakaba? Second, what factors help to make sense of this gap in the recognition and reporting of violence in the affected LGAs?

3The paper responds to these questions by starting with a brief description of the local socio-political and socio-economic context. With empirical content, it then discusses the nature of lethal violence in the selected LGAs. In the next section, it sheds light on the factors identified as responsible for the shortcomings of reports and records of fatal incidents, while the final part of the paper concludes with remarks on the overall research findings.

4In regard to methodology, a total of 1,200 questionnaires were circulated across a broad spectrum of residents in the four LGAs. Although not all respondents completed every aspect of the questionnaire, a total of 1,083 returned sufficient data to generate a gender matrix complete with figures and percentages in relation to each of the four LGAs. However, to employ further rigour in the distillation of the received data, questionnaires not containing key indices for analyses (causes and descriptions of violent incidents, numbers of fatalities) were separated to generate another set of tables in relation to the four LGAs. Therefore, the total number of respondents recorded in the gender matrix (Table 10.1) does not necessarily match the total number of respondents recorded in Tables 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5.

5A challenge encountered in the study was in relation to questionnaires that appeared to duplicate the same fatal incident, year of event, affected community, and cause of violence. While such questionnaires presented nearly the same set of data, they tended to contain different figures for the number of fatalities. Therefore, such cases were addressed by taking the average of the fatalities recorded, since all other variables remained constant. Furthermore, it is possible that there were instances where certain questionnaires presented different causes for a single violent incident. It should also be taken into account that the limitations of human memory on the part of most respondents limited the generation of data in regard to dates of violent occurrences. Consequently, the tables presented for each of the four LGAs reflect only the years that incidents took place, not the days and months. In all, this study establishes that the overarching pattern of lethal violence in Sokoto and Kebbi has been generally underestimated in terms of its occurrence rate in rural areas and of the frequency of fatalities.

Gudu, Gwadabawa, Illela and Sakaba: A bird’s-eye view

6Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela are among the 23 LGAs in Sokoto State. Population distribution figures published by the National Population Commission (NPC) suggest that the total population of Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela are 95,400, 231,569, and 150,133, respectively.1 For reasons that may help to explain why violent incidents have received minimal attention from the media, it is important to note that Gudu LGA is situated in a remote part of Sokoto State and, in fact, shares a border with the Republic of Niger. Its capital is a town called Balle, but there are a number of other localities. Similar to Gudu, Illela LGA is also situated far from the geographical centre of Sokoto and shares a border with the Republic of Niger. Among the three LGAs, Gwadabawa is the largest in terms of population size, akin to Sokoto North for instance. However, demographic features do not explain why some LGAs receive little attention as far as violent incidents are concerned.

7Gwadabawa is noted to have played an important role in the historical build-up of the Sokoto caliphate. This fact is acknowledged by Hugh Johnston, who further explains how certain parts of present-day northern Nigeria such as Gwadabawa were geographically compact and, in fact, not dissimilar from English counties.2 Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela ‑ and by extension the entire north-western zone of which Sokoto and Kebbi are a part ‑ owe much of their relative order and peaceful milieu to the influence of history and particularly that phase associated with the legacy of the 1804 jihad. Although not the main focus of this section, there is an important point to be made regarding how the jihad led by Sheikh Uthman dan Fodio occasioned not only an Islamic and scholastic revolution but also the bequeathing of a profound socio-political structure and administrative organization of the society which we now know as contemporary Sokoto State. What appears to be the peaceful character of Sokoto and Kebbi is even more significant in light of the ongoing Boko Haram insurgency, to which other northern states such as Borno and Yobe bear witness. It is therefore amidst this apparent atmosphere of relative peace and stability in Sokoto and Kebbi that the challenge of addressing the phenomenon of unreported violent incidents also gains importance.

8Like most of the other LGAs in Sokoto State, Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela have their economies based on agriculture and particularly subsistence farming. Several crops are cultivated, but the main ones in these LGAs include millet, maize, guinea corn, and beans/cowpeas. Cattle grazing remains a common practice, which explains why the data in this study underscores how this economic activity is fused with the overall portrait of violent incidents. Weaving, dyeing, and tanning constitute a main focus of local industries; and although attempts have been made by a number of state government authorities to stimulate mechanized agriculture, these LGAs ‑ and indeed Sokoto State ‑ still exhibit a high level of both relative and absolute poverty in comparison with other states.3

9In terms of religion, Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela, in common with other LGAs in Sokoto State, are over 90% Muslim, and the predominant language spoken is Hausa (with Fulfulde spoken to a lesser extent). The political landscape in Gudu, Gwadabawa, and Illela has maintained quite a competitive character over the years and especially during the period (2006-2014) examined in this study. A considerable number of the violent incidents identified in the aforementioned LGAs are attributable to the evolution and contestation involving political parties, such as the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) and the four defunct parties that later merged to form the All Progressives Congress (APC). These four defunct parties, which were once active within the aforesaid LGAs, comprise the Congress for Progressive Change (CPC), the Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN), the All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP), and a faction of the All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA). Another party involved in some of the violent incidents was the Democratic People’s Party (DPP).

10The socio-political and economic dynamics of Sakaba LGA in Kebbi State are largely associated with the larger historical trajectory of Sokoto State. This of course can be understood by the fact that Kebbi was carved out of Sokoto in August 1991. Of 21 LGAs, Sakaba is among the three least populated LGAs in Kebbi State, with a population of 91,728. The other two smaller LGAs are Kalgo (with a population of 84,928) and Aleiro (67,078).4 Its comparably low population contributes to the perception of Sakaba by the media as unimportant, and its geographical location within Kebbi places it at an extreme corner of the state, sharing borders with neighbouring Niger. Most people from Sakaba practise Islam and are largely Hausa-speaking. There are also some inhabitants who adhere to Christianity or traditional religious beliefs. For instance, traces of traditional religious worship can still be found among the Cicipu-speaking people, who are ethnically referred to as the Acipu, in the part of Sakaba that shares a border with Kontagora LGA in Niger. Subsistence farming and livestock production are widely practised in the area. However, the remote communities of the LGA are severely challenged by problems of accessibility, especially by car during the rainy season. Absent road infrastructure hampers the possibility for farmers to market their harvests outside Sakaba and explains the tendency for violent incidents to go unnoticed by the media and local authorities.

Table 10.1. Demographics of respondents in Gudu, Gwadabawa, Illela, and Sakaba LGAs

LGA

Male

Female

Total

% Male / Female

Gudu

234

47

281

83.27 / 16.73

Gwadabawa

217

87

304

71.38 / 26.62

Illela

155

90

245

63.27 / 36.73

Sakaba

149

104

253

58.89 / 41.11

Source: Fieldwork, August–September 2014

11As noted in the introductory section, Table 10.1 is based on the data from questionnaires in which respondents indicated their gender status in the respective LGAs. While it may not provide the complete gender portrayal of every respondent, it does provide an impression suggestive of the gender ratio in each of the LGAs. Thus, if the suggested gender ratio is anything to go by, the most striking feature is that there is a much lower response rate from females than from males in all the LGAs. However, the lower feedback rate from females is not in any way a consequence of fewer women in the LGAs. In fact, according to official statistics, Illela LGA, for instance, has a slightly higher number of females (75,184) than males (74,949). Such a skewed outcome can be understood in light of the socio-cultural dynamics which persist in obscuring the ‘visibility’ and representation of women in these communities. Furthermore, the marked religious context of these communities also shapes the interaction of males and females in certain public spaces. This factor no doubt exerted some influence on the willingness of certain women to respond and render numerically representative feedback to the questionnaires.

Violent incidents in Gudu, Gwadabawa, Illela, and Sakaba (June 2006-May 2014)

Table 10.2. Violent incidents in Gudu LGA (June 2006-May 2014)

S/N

Date

Community

Cause

Description

No. of deaths

1

2006

Balle

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Balle farmers

3

2

2006

Kurdula

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

3

2006

Gwazange

Car accident

Due to bad roads

7

4

2007

Balle

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

3

5

2007

Balle

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

5

6

2007

Kurdula

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

5

7

2007

Gwazange

Political crisis

ACN vs. PDP supporters

2

8

2007

Gwazange

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

1

9

2007

Dayeji

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

8

10

2007

Tunga

Political crisis

Former governor’s (Bafarawa) supporters vs. incumbent Sokoto State governor’s (Wammako) supporters

7

11

2007

Bachaka

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

2

12

2007

Karfe

Political crisis

Internal fighting within DPP

1

13

2007

Kuturure

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

2

14

2007

Gurdam

Political crisis

ANPP vs. ACN supporters

6

15

2007

Gwazange

Crime

Neighbouring villages fought each other

1

16

2007

Bangi

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

17

2007

Kurdula

Crime

Family feud involving Hussaini and Amina

2

18

2007

Balle

Crime

A man against another man over marriage matters

1

19

2007

Bachaka

Car accident

Due to over-speeding

8

20

2007

Filisko

Crime

Kanwuri vs. Sabon Gari communities

2

21

2008

Balle

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

1

22

2008

Bachaka

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters

1

23

2008

Chalasko

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters

2

24

2008

Dayeji

Cattle grazing

Fulani and farmers fought over allegation of stolen cattle

4

25

2008

Gwazange

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

26

2008

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

27

2008

Dayeji

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

28

2008

Bachaka

Crime

Family dispute

1

29

2008

Kurdula

Car accident

No description

8

30

2008

Gwazange

Car accident

No description

2

31

2009

Kurdula

Political crisis

ACN vs. PDP supporters

1

32

2009

Tunga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Tunga farmers

3

33

2009

Rafin Kubu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

34

2009

Karfe

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

6

35

2009

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

36

2009

Kurdula

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

37

2009

Tunga

Crime

Associated with community issues

1

38

2009

Bachaka

Market issue

Family feud over economic issues

1

39

2009

Balle

Crime

One man with his wife against another man

1

40

2010

Gwazange

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

1

41

2010

Rafin Kubu

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

1

42

2010

Filasko

Political crisis

CPC vs. PDP supporters

2

43

2010

Gudu Town

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

3

44

2010

Balle

Political crisis

CPC vs. DPP supporters

2

45

2010

Gurdam

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

1

46

2010

Tunga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Tunga farmers

3

47

2010

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

48

2010

Kurdula

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa community

3

49

2010

Kurdula

Crime

Violence erupted between a couple leading to death of the man

1

50

2010

Tunga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Tunga farmers

1

51

2010

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

52

2010

Gurdam

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

53

2010

Gwazange

Crime

Family feud

1

54

2010

Dorasa Area

Crime

Community vs. community over economic issues

1

55

2010

Gwazange

Crime

Involvement of male and female youths

2

56

2010

Bachaka

Car accident

Due to bad roads

2

57

2010

Yakka

Crime

Parent-to-parent violence

2

58

2011

Bachaka

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters during electoral campaign

2

59

2011

Bachaka

Political crisis

PDP vs. ACN supporters

1

60

2011

Gudu

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters

5

61

2011

Balle

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

2

62

2011

Balle

Crime

Villagers vs. hooligans in town

1

63

2011

Kokotau

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

2

64

2011

Balle

Natural disaster

Flooding crisis

1

65

2011

Yakka

Political crisis

PDP vs. ANPP supporters

2

66

2011

Salawa

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

2

67

2011

Salawa, Gudun Buki

Fire

Fire in the houses of Dan Tunau and Suleiman

4

68

2011

Salawa, Gudun Buki

Natural disaster

No description

5

69

2011

Shatoka, Zabarma

Natural disaster

No description

2

70

2011

Karfen Chana

Political crisis

CPC vs. APGA supporters

2

71

2011

Gwazange

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

2

72

2011

Gwazange

Market issue

Two persons clashed over ownership of a bag of rice in a market place

2

73

2011

Tunga

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

2

74

2011

Filasko

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

2

75

2011

Filasko

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

76

2011

Filasko

Market issue

Business-related conflict

2

77

2011

Kurdula

Political crisis

DPP vs. PDP supporters during rally

3

78

2011

Rafin Kubu

Political crisis

ANPP vs. DPP supporters during rally

1

79

2011

Dayeji

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters during voting campaign

1

80

2011

Gurdam

Crime

Community vs. community

1

81

2011

Karfe

Crime

Community vs. community

2

82

2011

Karfe

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters during voting campaign

33

83

2011

Boto

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

84

2011

Karfen Sarki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

85

2011

Karfen Sarki

Crime

Football clash: Gudu United vs. Karfen Sarki Stars

2

86

2011

Tunga

Crime

Rapist beaten to death

1

87

2011

Karfen Chana

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Yan Shi’a

1

88

2011

Shiyar Yamma

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

89

2012

Gudun Buki

Political crisis

PDP vs. ANPP supporters

2

90

2012

Salawa

Crime

Conflict between husband and wife

3

91

2012

Salawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

92

2012

Boto

Political crisis

CPC vs. ANPP supporters

2

93

2012

Gozange

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

2

94

2012

Bachaka

Political crisis

ANPP vs. PDP supporters

3

95

2012

Bachaka

Crime

Tunga vs. Bachaka community clash

2

96

2012

Bachaka

Market issue

Muslim vs. Muslim

2

97

2012

Bachala

Political crisis

PDP vs. ACN supporters

31

98

2012

Bangi

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Bangi farmers

1

99

2012

Balle

Car accident

Bad roads and over-speeding

2

100

2012

Makuya

Fire

No description

1

101

2012

Kokotau

Fire

Explosion in Makepa area in Kokotau

3

102

2012

Yakka

Religious crisis

Muslims vs. Christians

9

103

2013

Balle

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

1

104

2013

Balle

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

105

2013

Gwazange

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

106

2013

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

107

2013

Bachala

Political crisis

APC vs. PDP supporters

5

108

2013

Yar Bakwai

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Sunni

2

109

2013

Boto

Religious crisis

Tijaniyya vs. Yan Izala

6

110

2013

Karfen Sarki

Crime

Bakin Gari vs. Chikin Gari communities

2

111

2013

Chalasko

Crime

House of Dan Mamman vs. family of Saraki

3

112

2013

Chalasko

Market issue

Buyer vs. seller

2

113

2013

Filasko

Crime

Conflict over a girlfriend

1

114

2013

Kurdula

Cattle grazing

Hausa–Fulani clash for three days before police intervention

2

115

2013

Huda

Natural disaster

Windstorm

1

116

2013

Bangi

Natural disaster

Water erosion between Kokotau and Bangi towns

3

117

2014

Karfe

Political crisis

APC vs. PDP supporters

2

118

2014

Karfe

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers, over missing cow

7

119

2014

Balle

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

120

2014

Balle

Political crisis

APC vs. PDP supporters

6

121

2014

Balle

Car accident

Collision between two motorcycle riders, leaving one dead

1

122

2014

Balle

Car accident

Due to bad roads

2

123

2014

Balle

Natural disaster

Heavy rainfall and floods

1

124

2014

Tunga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers, over allegation of stolen cattle

1

125

2014

Kurdula

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

126

2014

Kurdula

Car accident

Due to bad roads

2

127

2014

Garin Gabas

Crime

Armed gang invaded community

1

128

2014

Makuya

Car accident

Due to over-speeding and bad roads

2

129

2014

Shetallo

Religious crisis

Tijaniyya vs. Yan Izala

2

130

2014

Bachaka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

131

2014

Bachaka

Car accident

Due to bad roads

1

Source: Fieldwork, August-September 2014

12Based on the data presented in Table 10.2, there were at least 131 violent incidents in Gudu LGA between 2006 and 2014, resulting in a total number of 367 fatalities. These unreported incidents affected at least 39 different wards and communities within Gudu. The top three causes of violence were political crisis (45 incidents), cattle grazing (33), and crime (23). The three least frequent causal factors of violent incidents were market issues, fires, and religious crises. Matters related to sorcery and land issues did not appear at all as causes. Returning to one of the leading three causes, political crises caused the greatest number of incidents, particularly in 2007 and 2011, which both happened to be election years in the country. Similar to a number of other states, political tensions usually rise in Sokoto before, during, and after elections.

Table 10.3. Violent incidents in Gwadabawa LGA (June 2006-May 2014)

S/N

Date

Community

Cause

Description

No. of deaths

1

2006

Tungar Zaki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

7

2

2006

Tungar Shanu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

3

2006

Kola

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

4

2006

Kaura Huchi

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

5

2006

Lukuwa Tudu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

6

2006

Chimola

Cattle grazing

Hausa vs. Fulani

1

7

2006

Gidan Kaya

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

8

2006

Buzan Lega

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

9

2006

Tajaye

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa

1

10

2006

Gigane

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

11

2006

Here village

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

12

2006

Tungan Shanu

Land issue

Land struggle led to violence between members of the community

3

13

2006

Gidan Kaya

Crime

Armed robbers murdered an individual

1

14

2006

Asara

Sorcery

Community members arrested and killed a suspected sorcerer

1

15

2006

Gwadabawa

Car accident

A lorry ran into an electric pole and exploded, electrocuting two individuals

2

16

2006

Gwadabawa

Crime

A fight broke out between Gwadabawa youth and the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA)

1

17

2006

Gwadabawa

Crime

A Yoruba woman threw her child into a well

1

18

2006

Gwadabawa

Land issue

Inheritance battle

1

19

2006

Zangiru

Crime

Execution of armed robber by community

1

20

2006

Darma

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

21

2006

Tungar Bugaje

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

2

22

2007

Dangero

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

23

2007

Tungar Zaki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

8

24

2007

Kagoye

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa

1

25

2007

Kagara

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

26

2007

Chimola

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

27

2007

Buzan Lega

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

28

2007

Mamman Suka

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

29

2007

Tsolawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

5

30

2007

Kulalo

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

31

2007

Gwadabawa

Car accident

A fatal accident involving two cars in a head-on collision

25

32

2007

Male

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

3

33

2007

Rugar Mande

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

34

2007

Kola

Crime

Asariya group vs. Gubudiyya group during gathering in the town

1

35

2007

Tungar Shanu

Political crisis

Allocation of government projects by the ruling party DPP led to a disagreement with PDP (opposition)

3

36

2007

Gwadabawa

Political crisis

DPP’s LGA chairman allegedly prompted the PDP opposition party into violent demonstrations owing to complaints of injustice

1

37

2007

Tungar Kwangi

Political crisis

Opposition ANPP complained of violation of ‘sharing formula’ by PDP

3

38

2007

Chimola

Political crisis

A complaint of election rigging caused a brutal fight between PDP and DPP supporters

4

39

2007

Gidan Kwano

Political crisis

PDP complained of violation of ‘sharing formula’ by ANPP, leading to violence

3

40

2007

Tungar Dillu

Political crisis

Election result opposed by PDP supporters

1

41

2008

Dan Gero Salame

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

42

2008

Tungar Zaki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

5

43

2008

Tungar Shanu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

44

2008

Chimola (Tajaye)

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

45

2008

Asara

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

46

2008

Atakwanyo

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

47

2008

Gidan Karna

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

48

2008

Tungan Mani Dan Kasari

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

49

2008

Kalaba

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

50

2008

Dan Sitti

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

51

2008

Dan Burunje

Car accident

A motorcyclist collided with a car at a sharp bend in the road

3

52

2008

Gidan Kaya

Political crisis

Alleged election rigging pitched DPP against ANPP supporters

1

53

2008

Tudun Doki

Political crisis

Political rally of ruling DPP led to violence with opposition ANPP

1

54

2009

Tungar Barga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

55

2009

Tungar Shanu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

56

2009

Lahodu

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

57

2009

Kagoye

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

58

2009

Kwalango

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

59

2009

Ranganda

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

60

2009

Gwadabawa

Car accident

A car crashed owing to faulty wheels

2

61

2009

Gwadabawa

Car accident

A commercial motorcyclist and passenger were crushed by a car

2

62

2009

Mammande

Crime

Armed robbery attack

11

63

2009

Matse

Other accident

A tree fell on a man

1

64

2009

Chimola

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

65

2010

Millela

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

66

2010

Kwankwanawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

67

2010

Tungar Mallam

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

68

2010

Hunchi

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

69

2010

Mammande

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

70

2010

Gorgawo village

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

71

2010

Takalmawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

72

2010

Here village

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

73

2010

Lukuwa Rafi

Natural disaster

Gworonyo Dam over-flowed, flooding villages situated close to a river

9

74

2010

Yar Tunga

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

1

75

2011

Lukuwa

Natural disaster

Gworonyo Dam over-flowed, flooding villages along a river

2

76

2011

Tungar Tudu

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

3

77

2011

Burdi

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

1

78

2011

Kwankwanawa

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

3

79

2011

Millela

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

80

2011

Mammande

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

81

2011

Darna

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

82

2011

Dan Fanga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

83

2011

Tunga Zaki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

84

2011

Salame

Car accident

A car ran into a mud house, killing the driver

1

85

2011

Tungar Madugu

Political crisis

Supporters of the ruling DPP clashed with the opposition ANPP

3

86

2011

Salame

Political crisis

ANPP supporters attacked the convoy of the LGA chairman

1

87

2012

Kiliya

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

88

2012

Tungar Zaki

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

89

2012

Kola

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

90

2012

Dan Fanga

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

91

2012

Chanca

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

92

2012

Tsolawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

93

2012

Jihadi

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

94

2012

Tunga Bugaje

Other accident

A weak wall fell on the occupants of a house

5

95

2012

Tungar Zaki

Car accident

A motorcyclist lost control and crashed through a broken bridge

4

96

2012

Tungar Jeje

Car accident

A driver lost control of his car and died

1

97

2012

Dan Burunje

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

98

2012

Gangada

Political crisis

Campaign rally involving violence between DPP and PDP

1

99

2012

Mele

Political crisis

Opposition ANPP complained of violation of ‘sharing formula’ by PDP

2

100

2013

Kwankwanawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

101

2013

Dangero

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

102

2013

Tungar Bugaje

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

3

103

2013

Kagara

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

104

2013

Asara

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

105

2013

Tungar Dan Dolo

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

2

106

2013

Salame

Market issue

Dispute regarding the location of a market caused violence

1

107

2013

Tungan Bugaje

Other accident

A dilapidated mud house collapsed, killing its occupants

3

108

2013

Salame

Car accident

Head-on collision involving two cars led to the death of one of the drivers

1

109

2013

Gwanja

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

110

2013

Mammande

Religious issue

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

1

111

2013

Gwadabawa

Car accident

A truck crushed a motorcyclist

1

112

2013

Kuliya

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

3

113

2014

Kaime

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

114

2014

Gwadabawa

Other accident

A person fell into a well and was found dead after two days

1

115

2014

Salame

Car accident

A motorcyclist crashed into a ditch

1

116

2014

Salame

Car accident

A car crashed through a bridge, killing its driver

1

117

2014

Salame

Car accident

A car driver lost control and crashed into a market, killing one individual

1

118

2014

Tungar Shanu

Car accident

A motorcyclist died following collision with a stationary car

1

119

2014

Tungar Mai Komo

Car accident

A motorcyclist lost control and died following collision in a crowded area

1

120

2014

Salame

Other accident

A child fell into a well

1

Source: Fieldwork, August-September 2014

13Compared with Gudu, Gwadabawa LGA experienced a slightly lower number of violent incidents (120) and fatalities (253) across 68 wards and communities between 2006 and 2014 (Table 10.3). The predominant cause of violent incidents was cattle grazing (68 incidents),5 followed by car accidents (15) and political crises (12). Sorcery, market issues, natural disasters, and land issues constituted the least frequent causal factors linked with violent incidents in the LGA. In terms of years, 2006, followed closely by 2007, witnessed the highest number of violent incidents, among which the number of conflicts involving farmers and Fulani cattle herdsmen were considerable. Although religious crisis was associated with only eight violent incidents, all involved clashes between the Yan Shi’a and the Sufi brotherhood known as the Tijaniyya. This significant number of incidents involving the Yan Shi’a exceeds the number in Gwadabawa LGA and, indeed, fits a broader pattern of religious-related crisis involving the group in some other parts of Sokoto State, such as in Sokoto North and Sokoto South LGAs.6

Table 10.4. Violent incidents in Illela LGA (June 2006-May 2014)

S/N

Date

Community

Cause

Description

No. of deaths

1

2006

Gaidau

Political crisis

Two opposing political parties, PDP and DPP, clashed over differences in interest

3

2

2006

Illela Araba

Sorcery

Conflict between husband and wife

1

3

2006

Gidan Hamma, Gidan Katta

Fire accident

Explosion

1

4

2006

Illela District

Crime

Incident involving the Hausa vs. Adarawa community

1

5

2006

Illela Stadium

Crime

Incident involving the Araba vs. Amarawa football clubs

1

6

2006

Gidan Kwanni

Crime

Incident involving the Nigerian army against armed robbers

5

7

2007

Kan Wuri

Political crisis

DPP vs. ACN supporters

2

8

2007

Gidan Katta

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

2

9

2007

Zugana

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

5

10

2007

Tudun Gudali

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

1

11

2007

Gidan Ayuba

Political crisis

PDP vs. ANPP supporters

3

12

2007

Yar Kwalbati

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

1

13

2007

Illela District

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

1

14

2007

Gidan Hamma

Political crisis

PDP vs. ANPP supporters

1

15

2007

Gidan Kwanni

Natural disaster

Flooding (water)

5

16

2007

Yar Marina

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

2

17

2007

Danbar Dikko

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Fulani

6

18

2008

Sandaga

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

3

19

2008

Central Market

Market issue

Conflict over land matter in the market

1

20

2008

Illela Araba

Fire accident

Explosion

3

21

2008

Illela Central

Natural disaster

Flood occurred owing to lack of drainage

1

22

2008

Nasarawa

Natural disaster

Heavy rain caused flooding and deaths and left people homeless

3

23

2008

Dan Boka

Natural disaster

Flooding

3

24

2008

Kan Wuri

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Yan Izala

5

25

2008

Illela

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

2

26

2008

Yar Tsakkuwa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

27

2008

Anbarura

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

11

28

2008

Illela Central

Land issue

Fulani vs. Hausa

3

29

2009

Munwadata

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa

10

30

2009

Gidan Ayuba

Fire accident

The house of a family caught fire

2

31

2009

Yar Marina

Market issue

Conflict over market transaction

2

32

2009

Dan Boka

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

1

33

2009

Amarawa

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Fulani

2

34

2009

Tudun

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa

5

35

2009

Hura

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

36

2009

Gidan Ayuba

Crime

Hooligans attacked strangers

4

37

2009

Dan Bar Dikko

Crime

Community defence against armed robbers

4

38

2010

Kalmano

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

3

39

2010

Danba Fulani

Fire accident

Explosion in a village

3

40

2010

Dan Birema

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

4

41

2011

Illela Araba

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

1

42

2011

Ambarura

Political crisis

PDP vs. ACN supporters

2

43

2011

Gaidau Chiwake

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

1

44

2011

Tudun Gudale

Fire accident

Explosion incident

1

45

2011

Gidan Hamma

Fire accident

Fire disaster in a village

1

46

2011

Tambagarka

Market issue

Hawkers vs. traders in market stalls

5

47

2011

Illela District

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Yan Izala

3

48

2011

Ambarura

Religious crisis

Qadiriyya vs. Yan Izala

1

49

2011

Danbar Dikko

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

2

50

2011

Kalmalo

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Hausa

2

51

2011

Dan Kuda

Crime

Amarawa vs. Kalmalo football clubs

1

52

2011

Amarawa

Crime

Supporters of Real Madrid vs. Barcelona football clubs

3

53

2012

Kara

Political crisis

PDP vs. CPC supporters

2

54

2012

Tudun Gudale

Political crisis

PDP vs. ACN supporters

1

55

2012

Gidan Hamma

Natural disaster

Heavy rain

8

56

2012

Amarawa

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

5

57

2012

Illela District

Religious crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya, involving the police

4

58

2012

Yar Marina

Crime

Yar Marina vs. Madatsawa football clubs

2

59

2012

Illela

Car accident

Due to bad roads

1

60

2012

Gaidau Chiwake

Car accident

Due to bad roads

3

61

2012

Yar Kwalbati

Car accident

Motorcycle accident between Kwalbati and a market

1

62

2013

Amarawa

Crime

Armed robbers vs. residents

1

63

2013

Madatsa

Political crisis

PDP vs. DPP supporters

3

64

2013

Gidan Katta

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

2

65

2013

Illela

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

1

66

2013

Dan Boko

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

1

67

2013

Illela Araba

Political crisis

DPP vs. APC supporters

1

68

2013

Machesare

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

1

69

2013

Illela

Fire accident

Incident occurred in a market

2

70

2013

Illela Nasara

Fire accident

Fuel station gutted by fire

3

71

2013

Illela Araba

Oil distribution

Oil distribution led to violence in town

1

72

2013

Zugana

Fire accident

Fire incident killed one individual

1

73

2013

Kalmano

Natural disaster

Flooding

3

74

2013

Illela Yar Kara

Natural disaster

Flooding

1

75

2013

Illela Yar Kara

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Nigerian Army

10

76

2013

Illela Araba

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

1

77

2013

Illela Araba

Religious crisis

Yan Shi’a vs. Tijaniyya

3

78

2013

Kalmano

Cattle grazing

Hausa farmers vs. Fulani nomads

11

79

2013

Ambarura

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. Nigerian Police

1

80

2013

Danba

Land issue

Fulani vs. Hausa

4

81

2013

Illela Wood Zone

Crime

Commercial motorcyclist vs. angry mob

3

82

2013

Kalmanu

Political crisis

Local government staff vs. Kalmanu community

2

83

2013

Sanke

Crime

Hooligans vs. commercial motorcyclist

1

84

2013

Illela Stadium

Crime

Gaidau Chiwake football club vs. Gidan Hamma football club

1

85

2013

Dogon Karfe

Crime

Armed robbers vs. community

2

86

2013

Kwanni road

Car accident

Due to bad roads

2

87

2013

Ambaruru

Car accident

Due to bad roads

1

88

2013

Karangiya

Car accident

Due to bad roads

1

89

2013

Kanwuri

Car accident

Due to over-speeding

3

90

2013

Tuddun Wada

Car accident

Due to over-speeding

1

91

2013

Dogon Karfe

Car accident

Due to bad roads

10

92

2013

Dan Boka

Car accident

Due to bad roads

3

93

2014

Illela Araba

Political crisis

PDP vs. APC supporters

1

94

2014

Illela Town

Car accident

Car owner, a relative, and three other victims

5

95

2014

Amarawa

Land issue

Fulani vs. farmers

2

96

2014

Dogun Karhe

Car accident

Fatal car crash

12

97

2014

Illela Araba

Natural

disaster

Flooding

1

98

2014

Gidan Hamma

Religious

crisis

Yan Izala vs. Tijaniyya

1

99

2014

Illela District

Crime

A criminal stole a Kasea motorcycle and was later killed

1

100

2014

Kara

Crime

Hooligans (Area Boys) vs. community elders

1

101

2014

Gidan Katta

Car accident

Due to bad roads

5

102

2014

Chiwaki

Car accident

Due to bad roads

3

103

2014

Dogon Karfe

Car accident

Fatal auto crash on the way from Illela to Dogon Karfe

10

Source: Fieldwork, August-September 2014

14In spite of a higher population than LGAs such as Gudu, Illela experienced a lower level of violent incidents and fatalities between 2006 and 2014 (Table 10.4). There were 103 unreported violent incidents resulting in 291 fatalities across at least 53 wards and communities. However, similar to Gudu, political crisis was the main cause of lethal violence, followed by 15 incidents associated with car accidents, which exactly matches the situation that transpired in Gwadabawa. As observed in Gudu and Gwadabawa, religious crisis again did not rank among the top three causes of fatal incidents in Illela. In fact, crime caused more violence in the LGA. Market and land conflicts, as well as issues pertaining to sorcery, were the least frequent causal factors of violent incidents. The year 2013 was the most violent year in Illela, measured by number of fatalities as well as frequency of incidents, the principal causes of which were political crisis (involving mainly the PDP and APC) and car accidents (due mainly to bad roads).

Table 10.5. Violent incidents in Sakaba LGA (June 2006-May 2014)

S/N

Date

Community

Cause

Description

No. of deaths

1

2006

Makuku

Crime

Attack led to the death of 6 people

6

2

2006

Laraba

Sorcery

Cult member vs. community

4

3

2006

Jan-birnin

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

1

4

2006

Doka

Sorcery

Act of witchcraft

1

5

2006

Jan-birnin

Crime

Armed gang and community

4

6

2007

Unguwar Yamma

Sorcery

Ritual incident involving a man and his elder brother

2

7

2007

Doka

Sorcery

Act of witchcraft

2

8

2007

Makuku

Crime

Armed gang against members of the community

8

9

2008

Doka

Sorcery

An alleged witch was killed by members of the community

1

10

2008

Dirin Daji

Crime

Cult member vs. community members

2

11

2008

Makuku

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

7

12

2009

Unguwar Yakkorau

Sorcery

Witch vs. community

2

13

2009

Doka

Sorcery

Victim of witchcraft

1

14

2009

Jan-birnin

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. community

2

15

2010

Diri Yakkoro

Sorcery

A alleged witch killed somebody and was later also killed

2

16

2010

Sakaba gari

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

2

17

2010

Laraba village

Crime

Police vs. armed robbers

3

18

2010

Agale town

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

2

19

2011

Yakkorau Diri

Sorcery

Woman killed by a group of people

2

20

2011

Rabe

Land issue

Fulani vs. Kambari

5

21

2011

Yakkorau

Crime

People killed during an armed robbery attack

9

22

2011

Dirin Daji

Crime

Armed gang vs. police and also involving community members, during a robbery incident

7

23

2011

Shiyar

Land issue

Communal violence over a plot of land

6

24

2011

Makuku

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

9

25

2012

Yakoro

Sorcery

An alleged witch killed a man

2

26

2012

Rabe

Land issue

Clash over land claims involving a Fulani individual

3

27

2012

Dankolo

Crime

Robbery incident

1

28

2012

Dankolo

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

5

29

2012

Jan-birnin

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

2

30

2013

Unguwar Wade

Land issue

Farmland destroyed by a Fulani man

4

31

2013

Adeyi

Crime

Gang vs. community during a robbery incident

1

32

2013

Sakaba

Crime

Armed robbery incident

2

33

2014

Unguwar Wade

Land issue

Fulani cattle breeders claimed and destroyed land of Dakarkaru farmers

5

34

2014

Dankolo

Land issue

Fulani cattle breeders vs. Dakarkaru farmers

6

35

2014

Rabe

Land issue

Fulani vs. Kambari

5

36

2014

Rabe

Crime

Armed gang vs. community

5

37

2014

Sakaba gari

Cattle grazing

Fulani vs. farmers

5

Source: Fieldwork, August–September 2014

15In Sakaba, the only LGA in Kebbi State examined in this study, a total of 37 violent incidents led to 136 fatalities in 20 wards and communities. The data obtained revealed only four categories of unreported violent incidents: crime, sorcery, land issues, and cattle grazing. Crime and sorcery ranked as the top two factors that resulted in violent incidents, while issues caused by political crises, religious disputes, and car accidents were unidentified. As noted in the introductory part of this paper, the limitations of human memory ‑ for instance, the ability of Sakaba respondents to recall violent incidents relating to politics, religion, and car accidents ‑ should not be entirely ruled out. Nevertheless, the fact that not a single incident within these categories was cited by any respondent underscores that they were not factors considered conspicuous enough to have caused any violent deaths during the period under investigation. In fact, as pointed out earlier, certain parts of Sakaba are known to be severely affected by the problem of inaccessibility with cars. Hence, it is possible to understand the absence of motor accident fatalities in the LGA. Finally, the number of violent incidents and fatalities was highest in 2011, with approximately two-thirds of the total number of deaths attributed to crime ‑ and specifically to armed robbery attacks.

Explaining ‘invisible’ violence in Gudu, Gwadabawa, Illela and Sakaba LGAS

16Accounting for unreported violence in the four LGAs requires an understanding of a number of factors. The first relates to the physical location of some communities in the most far-flung geographical areas of a state. In the case of Sokoto, for instance, there is little dispute over the fact that in geostrategic terms it is situated far from the so-called centre of the country. In addition to harsher climatic conditions in the Sahel, this in a sense also influences the predisposition of people to prefer to migrate in search of economic opportunities in more cosmopolitan and industrial cities and states of Nigeria. Illela, for instance, happens to be one of the LGAs located in an extremely distant part of Sokoto State, and in fact it shares borders with another country (Niger). These factors together offer a perfect excuse to media organizations that may claim justification for not exploring such LGAs; but, at the same time, these organizations miss opportunities to report violent incidents when they do occur.

17A second factor relates to the issue of inaccessibility, which is closely linked to the preceding factor but in an infrastructural context. In Sakaba, statistics thus show a complete absence of car accidents, because of the lack of tarred roads. In Illela LGA ‑ where car accident was the second-most significant factor of lethal violence ‑ nine out of a total of 15 such incidents were attributed to bad roads.

18A third issue identified by respondents was the perceived insensitivity of local government officials and political representatives in a position of accountability towards the affected people. Some more critical respondents underscored the need for more effective representation of their communities in the political sphere. Compounding these challenges is also the manner in which these LGAs are perceived in terms of their economic worth in the eyes of the media as well as other stakeholders in the polity. If the people of these LGAs are not held in high regard by those accountable to them at the political level, this is also reflected in the attitude of media entities, who on their part are less willing to spend money, time, and energy in reporting from these rural regions. The study nonetheless found that there were a few instances where state and national media indeed reported violent incidents in some of the four LGAs under review. But such reporting falls short of providing sufficient details. It simply conveys basic information linked with the entire state, without mentioning the specific wards or communities affected. Several of such incomplete media reports can be found on the websites of various media organizations.

Conclusion

19The data analysed for each of the four LGAs under review clearly shows a range of factors accounting for fatal violence, including cattle grazing, political crisis, crime, and car accident. Particular years were also exceptionally violent, such as 2011 and 2013. Gudu LGA in Sokoto State recorded the highest number of fatalities as well as violent incidents, while Sakaba LGA in Kebbi State had the lowest. Although religion was linked to certain clashes involving the Yan Shi’a, the Tijaniyya Sufi brotherhood, and the Yan Izala movement, it accounted for few incidents in all four LGAs. Worthy of note is that the overall data draws attention to an alarming level of lethal violence in oft-neglected rural areas of Sokoto and Kebbi states.

Notes de bas de page

1 National Population Commission (2010), 2006 Population and Housing Census: Priority Table Volume IV. http://www.population.gov.ng/index.php/publications/141-population-distribution-by-age-and-sex-2006-census-priority-tables-vol-4 [archive].

2 Johnston, H. (1967), The Fulani Empire of Sokoto. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

3 National Bureau of Statistics (2012), Nigeria Poverty Profile 2010 Report. http://www.tucrivers.org/tucpublications/Nigeria%20Poverty%20Profile%202010.pdf

4 National Population Commission (2010), 2006 Population and Housing Census: Priority Table Volume IV.

5 Some of the interviews conducted at the Sokoto State Police Command Headquarters helped to confirm the seriousness of issues arising from cattle grazing in several parts of the state. As the tables show, nearly all the incidents involve clashes between Fulani herdsmen and Hausa farmers.

6 There have been a number of past violent incidents involving Yan Shi’a members, such as clashes in 2005 and 2007, as well as more recent encounters in November 2014 during a Yan Shi’a procession in Sokoto metropolis in Sokoto South LGA. Fieldwork for this study coincided with the period when a Yan Shi’a procession took place; and although there were no reported fatalities, some individuals were injured.


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