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Forêts et sociétés en Languedoc (Néolithique final’ Antiquité tardive)

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Lucie Chabal

Abstract

Texte intégral

1Part one: Anthracology, from sampling to palaeoecological Interpretation

2Chapter 1: Anthracological methods

3The anatomy of wood, preserved in archaeological charcoal, characterises each vegetal species. Identifications are achieved using a compound microscope. In this publication the main interest is the study of environmental changes, based on the analysis of charcoal samples coming from domestic hearths. To guarantee and understand the representativity of charcoal samples in relation with the area of wood supply, anthracology needs an accurate method, well defined and accountable. From past vegetation to the interpretative diagram, each stage must be studied by analysis of material, experimentation or argued hypothesis.

4Chapter 2: Field sampling

5In the field, a good sampling of charcoal is necessary to obtain reliable informations, representative of the environment. The first requirement, the distinction between domestic fire‑wood and wood used for other purposes, depends upon the archaeological context. The second requirement, the continuity of the deposits, to draw a synthetic representation of the supply of wood, is achieved by the study of charcoal samples dispersed throughout the habitation levels, with the exclusion of concentrations, such as hearths. Once these conditions have been fulfilled, optimal sampling in each stratigraphical level is carried out, followed by sieving (4 mm mesh) to obtain at least 300 to 400 scattered fragments.

6Chapter 3: Possible hypothesis: the palaeoecological representativity of charcoal from domestic fire‑wood

7The representativity of correctly sampled charcoal in relation to ancient wood supply, can be argued by the reproduction of frequency spectra in synchronous levels from the same site, by the number of wood species identified and by their coherence with the actual vegetation. The combustion properties of wood indicates why, in the samples studied, the choices made by man were largely in relation to criteria independent to the type of wood species. From wood to charcoal, the question of deformation of the proportions between species by the reduction in mass is studied by experimental combustion. Charcoal fragmentation follows a statistical law which is not function of the species and therefore allows enumeration. Sediment flottation reduces the hazards of fragmentation.

8Chapter 4: The interpretation of anthracological diagrams: principals and limits

9A charcoal analysis diagram is drawn for each site, representing the spectrum of species and their frequencies in the successive archaeological layers. The palaeoecological study of a diagram is not simple reading, but needs an interpretation inherent to the synthetic nature of the information. The diachronic frequency variations must be translated correctly in terms of absolute variations of species and in terms of area of wood supply. The ecology of modem wood species and the actual vegetation cover, their reaction to disturbance form the basis of the hypotheses presented. The evolution of site activities and the advance of techniques provide an explanation of the palaeoecological data.

10Part 2: Transformations of the landscape in the Languedoc

11Chapter 1: Framework of the study.

12Thirteen sites, of which twelve are open‑air, are studied following the method outlined in part one, ranging from the late Neolithic to late Antiquity. They are situated mostly in the lowlands of eastern Languedoc. In this second part, we take into account informations already obtained and consider methods of forest exploitation and their ecological incidences. The present day geographical and ecological framework is outlined, as well as the cultural chronology.

13Chapter 2: Human practices and deforestation

14The transformations of the forest by man during Prehistory and Antiquity are not independent of events from earlier periods. Neolithic peasant societies have incontestably marked the forest landscape with the progressive and reversible transformation of tree clusters into secondary forest. But these physionomical transformations should not be associated with deforestation, which is not indicated neither by palaeoecology, nor by agricultural or pastoral techniques and wood exploitation, nor by important economic needs. This chapter attempts to outline the effects of each activity in the forest. Local and temporary clearings, without the destruction of stumps, allowed the forest to be a favourable area for ail activities, without any functional division of space.

15Chapter 3: Mediterranean oakgroves and man

16In the Languedoc, human history is indissociable from that of the Mediterranean oakgrove. Constant cutting or burning, did not provoke the disappearance of the forest but created, instead, new relationships of competition between deciduous and evergreen oaks, which are recorded by anthracology. Such a substitution is noticed everywhere from the middle Neolithic up to the Antiquity, in a desynchronised and reverting manner, which testifies to the existence of similarities in the exploitation of the environment. The intensification of this process also reflects the great differences in the techniques used and in the economic needs.

17Chapter 4: Palaeoecology of thirteen sites in the Languedoc

18Diachronic palaeoecological interpretation is proposed for each site and its environment. The evolution of oakgroves and that of alluvial and coastal forests indicates a growing pressure of man on the environment. Between the late Neolithic and the late Bronze age, the areas of activity from upland settlements seems limited to the vicinity of the sites and oakgroves, but the colonisation of valleys is not noticed. For a long time, oakgroves were also the main forest association modified, around sites near lagoons and in alluvial valleys: an uneven topography, i.e. less accumulation of silt, is probably the explanation. Between the Chalcolithic and the Iron Age, mesophilous woodland extends to lower altitudes, probably as a result of increased silting. With the development of Iron Age settlements, woodland areas are definitively cleared in the plains, interpreted as agricultural zones. During Antiquity, pressure increased everywhere on oakgroves which are managed at least for the wood. The plains remain deforested, with the development of cultivation, especially fruit trees. During late Antiquity and the early Medieval period, a return to a forested landscape may have existed.

19Annexe 1: Sampling of charcoal on archaeological sites: from decision to field method

20Field methods and techniques of charcoal sampling are presented for the use of excavation directors. The particular use of wood (metallurgy, ovens, carpentry, etc.) is subject to exhaustive but random sampling. Domestic firewood used for palaeoecology requires a large sampling to obtain 300 to 400 charcoal fragments, from each dated level. The sampling of hearths only is not sufficient.

21Annexe 2: Results of the anthracological study of thirteen sites in the Languedoc dating from the late Neolithic to the late Antiquity

22This annexe groups anthracological tables and diagrams, basis of interpretations proposed in chapter 4, part 2.

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