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    Plan

    Plan détaillé Texte intégral Introduction 1. Geomorphological settings 2. Fluvial terraces and the study of the Athiaki Basin catchment 3. The road profile and the evolution of Klimonas slope 4. Discussion: Klimonas in its regional environmental and topographical contexts Conclusion Annexe Auteurs

    Klimonas

    Ce livre est recensé par

    Précédent Suivant
    Table des matières

    Chap. 3

    Geomorphological evolution of the site and adjacent slopes and stream

    Évolution géomorphologique du site et des versants et fleuve adjacents

    Pantelitsa Mylona et Benoît Devillers

    p. 43-58

    Résumés

    On a slope formed by colluvium deposits and next to the small coastal stream of Athiaki, Klimonas provides important palaeoenvironmental and palaeotopographic information. The geomorphological study was conducted on two scales: the left slope on which the site was settled and the Athiaki Valley itself. This part of the valley comprises three 25 m high alluvial terraces accumulated before and during the Neolithic occupation of Klimonas. Radiocarbon dating of the paleosoils from the two main sections under study revealed that sediments accumulated between the Last Glacial Maximum and the beginning of the Holocene; some are actually contemporary with the occupation of Klimonas. Alluvial deposits and paleosoils reflect many periods of fluvial activity or stable flow. Athiaki also recorded several significant environmental events, such as Heinrich 2, Bølling-Allerød and the 6.2 yrs BC cooling events. During the occupation of the site, environmental conditions were humid and the river flow was regular. The floodplain was larger and situated c. 20 m higher than today. Studying the colluvial deposits and paleosoils of terraces on which the Klimonas village itself was settled, allowed us to reconstruct the local topography during the PPNA occupation. It appears that the three terraces were already in existence at that time and were even more contrasted than today.

    Le site néolithique de Klimonas est localisé à 400 m environ au nord d’un fleuve côtier, l’Athiaki dont l’activité a laissé d’importantes formations du Quaternaire récent. Elles contribuent à la compréhension du paysage dans lequel s’est installée la société PPNA de Klimonas. L’étude géomorphologique concerne deux entités : les terrasses alluviales du fleuve côtier Athiaki et les colluvions des terrasses sur lesquelles est implanté le village néolithique. L’Athiaki prend sa source à 4 km environ du littoral. Son activité a façonné le paysage par érosion des formations encaissantes et accumulation de sédiment. En nombre varié tout au long du bassin versant, les terrasses alluviales atteignent 25 m d’épaisseur au maximum. Vers l’aval, elles se font moins nombreuses et moins hautes. Dans le cours moyen du fleuve où une étude approfondie a été menée, elles sont au nombre de trois et, sur la rive gauche, se développent sur un cône de déjection de pente. Des datations radiométriques obtenues sur 8 des 11 paléosols reconnus dans le cours moyen de l’Athiaki ont mis en évidence une géométrie d’emboîtement complexe des terrasses. La première est datée entre les 26 000 et 24 000 cal BC, début du Pléniglaciaire supérieur. Durant la suite de cette période, la séquence montre des écoulements plus ou moins réguliers contribuant à l’aggradation de la plaine alluviale. Des phases d’écoulements de faible énergie à dépôts fins favorisent la formation des sols dans la plaine d’inondation. La dynamique s’accroît sporadiquement, amenant des sédiments grossiers. L’incision de la plaine alluviale de l’Athiaki pourrait s’expliquer par l’événement froid et aride de Heinrich 2, situé aux alentours de 23 000 cal BC par les données paléoclimatiques régionales. La deuxième terrasse décrit une période comprise entre le début du Tardiglaciaire et le début de l’Holocène (environ 10 000 ans). Les courtes phases de stabilité de l’activité alluviale favorisent la formation de sols peu développés et peu évolués comparativement à ceux de la période antérieure. La dernière date obtenue pour cette formation alluviale est celle du paléosol 9 daté du début du 8e millénaire cal BC. Elle constitue le terminus post quem pour l’incision, postérieure au 8e mais bien antérieure au 4e millénaire. L’événement climatique à l’origine de cette seconde incision pourrait correspondre au 6.2 ka BC cooling event caractérisé par un climat sec et une diminution de température durant 200 ans. Après le 8e millénaire, le fleuve incise la terrasse préexistante sur plus de 4 m, générant ainsi une nouvelle terrasse emboîtée, la terrasse 2. Une troisième incision a, ensuite, donné lieu à l’édification de la terrasse 3, après 3 000 cal BC. La comparaissant avec 9 enregistrements de Méditerranée orientale, montre que, malgré sa petite taille et ses spécificités, l’Athiaki a enregistré les événements majeurs tels que le réchauffement Bølling/Allerød ou l’aridité de l’événement 6.2 ka BC. Il apporte des informations inédites sur les 15 000 années antérieures aux plus anciens enregistrements fluviaux chypriotes connus jusqu’à présent (vallées du Gialias et du Maroni). Les données réunies sur les terrasses alluviales indiquent par ailleurs que, durant l’occupation du village PPNA, les conditions étaient stables et humides. L’Athiaki était caractérisé par un écoulement régulier et par une nappe phréatique proche de la surface. Ces conditions, marquées par le dépôt d’alluvions fines, étaient favorables aux activités agricoles. La topographie était différente. Le lit mineur était environ 20 m plus haut qu’aujourd’hui avec une plaine d’inondation beaucoup plus large, donc plus proche du village. L’Athiaki a donc pu jouer le rôle de source d’eau et d’attracteur de gibier. L’étude de la coupe de la route (CRA) qui longe borde le village PPNA de Klimonas, a par permis de restituer l’évolution de la topographie et du paléoenvironnement locaux des trois terrasses sur lesquelles il était implanté. Le substrat de la terrasse moyenne où se trouve le Bâtiment communautaire, est composé de calcrète (havara) et de colluvions anciennes. La terrasse basse est exclusivement formée d’apports colluviaux. L’étude de la coupe de cette dernière a révélé l’existence de 3 paléosols. La datation du premier et du troisième d’entre eux, montre que la séquence a été formée entre le Pléniglaciaire et début de l’Holocène. Le troisième paléosol est en continuité avec le niveau de creusement des structures PPNA du village de Klimonas. Sa géométrie montre que l’escarpement entre les terrasses moyenne et basse existait déjà il y a 10 000 ans et qu’il était plus abrupt qu’actuellement. L’étude micromorphologique de ce paléosol a mis en évidence un horizon superficiel marqué par une croûte structurale comportant les traces d’activité racinaire d’une couverture végétale basse. Cette croûte est surmontée par une couche de dynamique colluviale qui amène des agrégats roulés dans des sédiments des sols d’occupation ainsi que des restes d’activité humaine comme des charbons et des esquilles d’os absentes des paléosols plus anciens.

    Texte intégral Introduction 1. Geomorphological settings 1.1. The Athiaki catchment area 1.2. The Klimonas slope terraces and their regolith 2. Fluvial terraces and the study of the Athiaki Basin catchment 2.1. Middle course of the stream 2.1.1. Sampling strategy and analytical methods 2.1.2. Description of the AT1 and AT5 profiles from Terraces 1 and 2 2.1.2.1. Alluvial Terrace 1: Profile AT1 2.1.2.2. Alluvial Terrace 2: Profile AT5 2.1.3. Reconstruction of the terraces’ geometry and chronology 2.2. Mapping the Athiaki’s alluvial terrace from upstream to downstream 2.3. Diachronic evolution of the catchment basin 2.3.1. Last Glacial Maximum Period 2.3.2. Late Glacial Period and the Holocene 2.4. Athiaki and the wider Eastern Mediterranean context 3. The road profile and the evolution of Klimonas slope 4. Discussion: Klimonas in its regional environmental and topographical contexts 4.1. Reconstructing the original topography of the Klimonas terraces 4.2. Environment of the PPNA village Conclusion Annexe Auteurs

    Texte intégral

    Introduction

    1Four hundred meters south of the Klimonas site (see location in chap. 2), the landscape is dominated by alluvial deposits created by the activity of the Athiaki Stream (fig. 3-1). Alluvial accumulation can record environmental changes during their formation and provide data on landscape changes; therefore, a geoarchaeological approach using alluvial geomorphology applied to Athiaki aimed to reconstruct the longue durée evolution of the environment before and during the occupation of Klimonas, as well as answering the crucial question on the potential relation between the village and the stream (Mylona et al. 2017, Mylona 2018). Palaeoenvironmental data from the beginning of the Holocene, when the site of Klimonas is dated, are extremely rare on Cyprus –alluvial geomorphology focusing on palaeoenvironmental changes has not been widely applied here. In addition, they are often poorly implemented in order to correlate the archaeological data and establish a direct relation between the environmental changes and societies (Gomez 1987, Deckers 2002, Devillers 2005, Waters et al. 2010, Devillers et al. 2015, Ghilardi et al. 2015).

    Fig. 3-1 – View from the south of the Neolithic site of Klimonas showing its spatial relation with the Athiaki Stream

    Le site néolithique de Klimonas et ses relations spatiales avec le fleuve côtier d’Athiaki, vues du sud vers le nord. Cliché P. Mylona, MNHN.

    Photo P. Mylona, MNHN.

    1. Geomorphological settings

    1.1. The Athiaki catchment area

    2Athiaki runs through the Limassol Basin in a geomorphological context dominated by steepped-hills (chap. 2, fig. 2-1). These hills were formed in different geological times (from Miocene to Upper Pleistocene) and are related to the uplift and simultaneous erosion of the Troodos Massif and Messinian marine regressions and Pliocene transgressions (Pantazis 1967). They are characterized mainly by the superimposition of calcareous formations of Lefkara (70–23My) and Pakhna (23–7My) and deposited on the Moni clayey formation (75–70My). Small streams run in the thalwegs between the hills. The tectonic activity of the region and the simultaneous uplift of the Troodos Massif contributed to the formation of alluvial and marine terraces during the Quaternary.

    3Athiaki is one of the region’s mainstreams (Briois et al. 2005). Its activity built the landscape through a mixture of erosion and sedimentary deposits to create alluvial terraces. Debris fans have been identified in the upstream and median sector while alluvial terraces can be observed in different sectors along the catchment basin. These alluvial formations depend on the initial topography (lower hills, larger floodplain) and the type of geological formation, which is why alluvial terraces differ innumber or height along the catchment basin.

    4In the middle sector of the catchment basin, the alluvial dynamic created three fill terraces on the left bank’s debris fan (fig. 3-2). The top of these terraces is situated 25 m higher than the actual streambed and is the closest point of alluvial formation to the Klimonas site. Here, alluvial deposits of various granulometric sizes alternate with deposits of fine sediments affected by pedogenetic processes characterized as paleosoils.

    Fig. 3-2 – View from the west of the middle sector’s alluvial terraces in the Athiaki Basin.

    The terraces are formed on a debris fan accumulated below the colluvial terraces of Klimonas.Les terrasses alluviales du cours moyens de l’Athiaki vues de l’est vers l’ouest. Les terrasses sont adossées à un cône de déjection accumulé en contrebas des terrasses colluviales de Klimonas. Cliché et DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    Photo and CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    1.2. The Klimonas slope terraces and their regolith

    5The site itself is situated on a stepped-hills at 30–140 m altitude, in a context dominated by colluvium deposits from the Late Glacial Maximum and Holocene: the Havara (local name for calcrete; Pantazis 1967, Schirmer 1998) and Lefkara formations (Benech et al., 2017: fig. 15). A profile along the site’s slope shows the different deposits on which the site was settled (Vigne et al. 2011).

    6Together with the study of this road profile (Vigne et al. 2011a), the numerous test excavations and stripping opened on the Klimonas slope (chap. 2) allowed us to map the regolith and geological substratum (Benech et al. 2017). All the recorded Limassol Basin Sedimentary formations are represented (fig. 3-3; see details and profile in appendix 3-1): i) Upper Cretaceous ultrabasic rocks and dark green clays (Mamonia MPL and Moni formation, gh²’/gh²’’fromthe geological map of Cyprus, Pantazis 1967), ii) Late Cretaceous/Paleogene grey-green marls of the lower Lefkhara formation (hi1 marls), iii) Eocene and Oligocene chalks and biocalcarenites of the upper Lefkhara formation (hi², hi3’), iv) Miocene Pakhna-Koronia carbonated formations (j3’’ and j4; fig. 3-4). The latter lies horizontally in discordance with the former, which is locally upright due to neotectonics movement, especially visible in the large fault that borders the site to the west. In addition, several strongly recarbonated colluvial deposits, calcretes (or havara) were observed in places, mainly dating from the final Pleistocene.

    Fig. 3-3 – Map of the regolithic outcrops observed on the Klimonas slope. References to the corresponding geological bodies are from the geological map of Cyprus, after Pantazis(1967).

    Carte des affleurements régolithiques observés depuis 2009 sur le versant de Klimonas. Les références des formations géologiques correspondantes sont celles de la carte géologique de Chypre, d’après Pantazis (1967). Relevé topographique R. Touquet, Inrap ; relevé géologique et DAO J.‑D. Vigne, CNRS.

    Topographic survey R. Touquet, Inrap; geological survey and CAD J.‑D. Vigne, CNRS.

    Fig. 3-4 – Geological map of the Klimonas region, eastern Limassol District and Limassol Forest in the north.

    Carte géologique du secteur de Klimonas, de la partie orientale du district de Limassol de l’est et de Limassol Forest au nord. ®Cyprus Geological Survey Department. République de Chypre.

    ®Cyprus Geological Survey Department. Republic of Cyprus.

    2. Fluvial terraces and the study of the Athiaki Basin catchment

    2.1. Middle course of the stream

    2.1.1. Sampling strategy and analytical methods

    7The geomorphological study of the Athiaki Stream was based on the study of its two most ancient terraces (Terraces 1 and 2) in the middle course of the fluvial basin. Six alluvial profiles were selected and studied from both sites. However, profiles AT1 and AT5 (from Terrace 1 and Terrace 2, respectively) warranted a more thorough analytical study (fig. 3-5 and 3-6).

    Fig. 3-5 – Aerial photo of the Athiaki and Klimonas region with the georeferenced position of the six profiles under study.

    Photo aérienne de la région de Klimonas et du cours moyen de l’Athiaki avec le positionnement géoréférencé des coupes. Relevé et DAO B. Devillers, UMR5140, P. Mylona, MNHN and R. Touquet, Inrap.

    Survey and CAD B. Devillers, UMR5140, P. Mylona, MNHN and R. Touquet, Inrap.

    Fig. 3-6 – Topographical section of the Klimonas-Athiaki Sector (A-B line on fig. 3-3).

    Coupe topographique du secteur Klimonas-Athiaki (ligne de coupe A-B sur la fig. 3-3). Relevé et DAO R. Touquet, Inrap.

    Survey and CAD R. Touquet, Inrap.

    8We sampled every layer recognized in the field for the four alluvial profiles ΑΤ2, AT3, AT4 and AT6 (appendix 3-3). For profiles AT1 and AT5, we collected 101 sediment samples of about 400 g, every 5 cm.

    9All collected samples have been analysed using different sedimentological and geochemical techniques, such as granulometry, magnetic susceptibility, X-ray fluorescence, total and organic carbon analysis, soil micromorphology and radiocarbon dating. For detailed information on the techniques used see appendix 3-2.

    2.1.2. Description of the AT1 and AT5 profiles from Terraces 1 and 2

    10A detailed description of the profiles and radiometric data can be found in appendices 3-3 and 3-4, respectively. The analytical data has been treated using Principal Component Analyses (PCA, Past 4.03 software, appendix 3-5).

    2.1.2.1. Alluvial Terrace 1: Profile AT1

    11For the first terrace (T1), which is also the most ancient one, the study was focused on the AT1 profile (fig. 3-7). Here, the alluvial sedimentation of more than 3m was interrupted by six episodes affected by pedogenetic processes identified as paleosoils. Paleosoils are brown-grey in colour and characterized by different pedologic indicators, such as polyhedral structure, nodules of manganese and calcite on aggregates. Different alluvial lithofacies, such as Open Framework (OF), Fill Framework (FF), Uniform Suspension (US), Vertical grain sorting (GV) and Sand with concentration of gravels (SL), were identified in the deposits; these are used as indicators of different river transport dynamics (for a developed description of lithofacies see appendix 3-3; Devillers 2008, Collinson 2013). Paleosoil 1, at the base of the sequence, seemed to be very different from the rest of the paleosoils, according to its pedological features and thickness. However, some of these features, such as carbonate nodules, were also observed in paleosoil 4 and 5.

    Fig. 3-7 – Drawing of profile AT1 from Terrace 1.

    Relevé schématique du profil AT1 de la terrasse 1. Dessin et DAO B. Devillers, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3.

    Drawing and CAD B. Devillers, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3.

    12Concerning profile AT1, radiocarbon dates have been processed on three paleosoils (tab. 3-1): the first, the third and the fifth. Organic matter from the first paleosoil gave a date of 22 166 – 21 411 cal BC (Stuiver and Reimer 1993). Considering the potential contamination of the organic matter from more recent deposits, as is usual for paleosoils, we propose to refer this event to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. The third paleosoil was dated to 23 225 – 22 528 cal BC. This date is statistically more ancient than that of the first paleosoil (T = 29.2, Chi² = 3.84; Calib test). The low quantity of organic matter in the soil (organic carbon: 0.12%, carbon 5.27%) can slightly change the radiocarbon date (Evin 1994); however, we considered that this date inversion was not a significant stratigraphic issue. The third date, obtained from paleosoil 5, was 7 676 – 7 517 cal BC. Combined with the presence of flint flakes in this paleosoil, this 8th millennium radiocarbon date appears as a terminus post quem for human presence in the Athiaki Valley.

    Tab. 3-1 – Radiocarbon dates from the AT1 profile.

    Datations radiocarbone du profil AT1.

    2.1.2.2. Alluvial Terrace 2: Profile AT5

    13Profile AT5 was situated in the same sector as AT1 but on the second terrace (T2). At the bottom of the profile (fig. 3-8), the layers were brown and clayey. The paleosoil 1 contained manganese and calcite nodules. On the other hand, from layer 4 upwards, the sediments were loamy silty and grey/yellow. Concerning the alluvial deposits, we identified the floodplain facies of SL, SU, MS and riverbed facies (FF) deposits alternated with paleosoils.

    Fig. 3-8 – Drawing of profile AT5 from Terrace 2.

    Relevé schématique du profil AT5 de la Terrasse 2. Relevé et DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    Drawing and CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    14Radiocarbon dating was conducted on all the AT5 paleosoils (tab. 3-2). The first one dated back to 25 471 – 24 280 cal BC. This sets the formation during the Last Glacial Maximum, which is significantly more ancient than the date of the first paleosoil from the AT1 profile. The second paleosoil was dated at 26 328 – 25 744 cal BC, which was significantly more recent than the first one. This chronological inversion seems to be related to the bioturbation of paleosoil 1. The third paleosoil was dated to 18 694 – 18 197 cal BC, while the fourth was dated to 17 228 – 16 808 cal BC. Paleosoil number 5 gave a very different date, 3 956 – 3 767 cal BC, corresponding to the warm and humid Atlantic Period of the Middle Holocene.

    Tab. 3-2 – Radiocarbon dates from the AT5 profile.

    Datations radiocarbone du profil AT5.

    2.1.3. Reconstruction of the terraces’ geometry and chronology

    15The graphic representation of selected geochemical and sedimentological markers (appendix 3-5) was used to understand the stream’s dynamic and the paleoenvironmental conditions.

    16According to the radiocarbon dates, the terraces formation started at least from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) until the Holocene. Based on these dates, the geometry of terrace formations seems to be complex (fig. 3-9). At least three phases of incision-sedimentation contributed to the formation of the three terraces. Sediment accumulations between 29 000 and 26 000 cal BC were incised during the Last Glacial Maximum, with continuous activity during the Late Glacial Period and the beginning of the Holocene covering the first formation. At the beginning of the Holocene, due to strong and sudden warming, a second incision occurred. Following this, the Holocene sedimentation created a second terrace whose deposits extend at least until the Middle Holocene (around 4 000 cal BC). A third incision then took place creating the third terrace, which is not a part of our study. Paleosoil 9 (profile AT1 paleosoil 5: AT1-PL5) seems to be contemporary with the Klimonas occupation (c. 8 800 cal BC; Vigne et al. 2012, 2017b, Manning 2014, chap. 11) even if the date of the paleosoils are usually younger than their formation (Evin 1994).

    Fig. 3-9 – A, Diagram of terraces’ geometry from the middle sector of Athiaki according to the paleosoils’ radiocarbon dates. B, Diagram presenting the hypothesis of alluvial terrace formation and the two incisions in Athiaki’s middle sector.

    A, schéma de la géométrie des terrasses du cours moyen de l’Athiaki fondé sur les dates des paléosols. B, hypothèse de formation des terrasses avec les deux épisodes d’incision. DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    2.2. Mapping the Athiaki’s alluvial terrace from upstream to downstream

    17A systematic survey of the lower course’s alluvial terrace, between the Ayios Tychonas village and Amathus Hill, was done during the 2016 and 2017 fieldwork seasons. The alluvial terraces were identified and mapped from a geomorphological and sedimentological perspective thanks to natural alluvial cross sections (fig. 3-10). While three terraces have been identified in the middle course, only two were observed in the downstream. Our field survey does not include the Amathus site.

    Fig. 3-10 – Geomorphological map of the Athiaki Basin catchment and the profile of different alluvial terraces from different sectors.

    A-A’: On the upstream the right bank has no sediment accumulations while there is a terrace on the left bank; B-B’: In the middle there are three terraces on each bank; C-C’: Downstream there are two terraces on the right bank and no terraces on the left; D-D’: Downstream has one terrace on the right bank against the bedrock and one terrace on the left bank but no visible bedrock.Profils topographiques dans différents secteurs d’Athiaki. A-A’ : secteur en amont : sur la rive droite, le fleuve côtier d’Athiaki ne dépose pas de sédiments, par contre sur la rive gauche il y a une terrasse ; B-B’ : secteur médian, les dépôts d’Athiaki créent trois terrasses ; C-C’ : secteur aval, la rive droite se caractérise par deux terrasses tandis que la rive gauche n’en possède qu’une seule ; D-D’ : sur la rive gauche, l’Athiaki érode le substrat et dépose des sédiments en créant une terrasse. Sur la rive gauche, une seule terrasse se forme, le substrat n’est pas visible. Cartographie P. Mylona, MNHN, et B. Devillers, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3 ; fond de carte : © Lands and Surveys Department, République de Chypre.

    Mapping P. Mylona, MNHN and B. Devillers, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3; CAD P. Mylona, MNHN; Basemap: Lands and Surveys Department©, Republic of Cyprus.

    18Terrace 1 is the most ancient. It was formed during the Last and Late Glacial Period and was observed mainly in the upstream of the Athiaki Basin. Terrace 2 and 3 were formed during the Holocene and were identified along the riverbed, from the upstream to the downstream sector. Terraces on the downstream are lower than in the upstream, where their height can be up to 25 metres.

    2.3. Diachronic evolution of the catchment basin

    2.3.1. Last Glacial Maximum Period

    19According to the various kinds of analyses conducted on the Athiaki sediments (appendix 3-5) in relation to field observations, we were able to reconstruct the stream’s dynamic and the floodplain evolution. Athiaki probably constitutes the only site on the island with well-studied alluvial terraces combining both deposits from the Last Glacial Maximum until the Middle Holocene (Deckers 2002, Devillers 2008, Hourani 2008, Waters et al. 2010, Ghilardi et al. 2015). The deposits covered a period of at least 19 000 years and recorded different environmental episodes.

    20The results obtained by this study showed that the Last Glacial Maximum period was characterized by regular flows which contributed to the aggradation of the floodplain (sedimentation rate 0.18 cm/year). Periods with weak flow deposed fine sediments and contributed to the formation of paleosoils (paleosoil 1). In some cases, these stability phases lasted for a long time (paleosoil 3, fig. 3-11, A).

    Fig. 3-11 – Synthetic diagram of the alluvial dynamic and soil conditions for each formation period, according to the different data collected. A: Initial deposits in the study sector; B: Deposits after the first incision; C: Deposits after the second incision.

    Figure synthétique de la dynamique alluviale et des conditions édapho-climatiques pour chaque phase de formation des séquences de dépôts alluviaux. A : dépôts initiaux ; B : dépôts postérieurs à la première incision d’Athiaki ; C : dépôts postérieurs à la deuxième incision d’Athiaki. DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    21Concerning Paleosoil 1, the high value of magnetic susceptibility (appendix 3-5: fig. 2) and the presence of iron and manganese showed very humid environmental conditions in the soil which had contributed to the alteration of organic matter (Maher and Thompson 1995, Mandel and Arthur Bettis III 2001). Periods of slow flow alternated with periods of strong dynamics able to transfer coarser sediments. During periods of strong and irregular alluvial dynamics, secondary flows on the floodplain contributed to the formation of SL facies (sand with concentrations of gravels), corresponding to secondary concentrated flows on the floodplain as a result of irregular and strong rainfall. Strong velocity in the riverbed is related to GV facies (Vertical sorting), characteristic of semi-arid conditions (Devillers 2005), and is evidenced by riverbed deposits of various dynamic flow. The different facies observed in the field also showed the change of the river’s route and the shift of the riverbed during the Last Glacial Period.

    22The latest date obtained for this formation is 23 000 years BC. According to palaeoclimatic data from the Eastern Mediterranean, at about 24 000 years BC the climate was cold with few precipitations (Bar-Matthews et al. 1999, 2000, Fontugne et al. 1999) related to the Heinrich 2 event (Bar-Matthews et al. 1997, 1999, Hemming 2009; fig. 3-9 and 11, A), which seems to create the first incision in Athaiki’s floodplain.

    2.3.2. Late Glacial Period and the Holocene

    23After the incision at around 23 000 BC, a fill terrace was created within the initial deposits (fig. 3-9). The erosion of a later period did not allow for the deposits to be observed in continuity. The new sequence contained deposits covering 10 000 years, from the beginning of the Late Glacial Period until the beginning of the Holocene. This sequence showed a mostly weaker alluvial dynamic than the previous period (sedimentation rate 0.03 cm/year instead of 0,18 cm/year for the previous period). The deposits during this period corresponded mainly to fine sediments of different dynamics and floodplain facies, which did not contribute to their significant aggradation. Short periods of regular river activity did not allow the important pedogenesis of deposits (fig. 3-11, B). Although, the presence of Filled Framework (FF) facies at the base of the sequence showed torrential flow had transported fine and coarse elements and created a wider riverbed (Steel and Thompson 1983, Collinson 2013). The fluctuations of various elements observable on the diagram were related to the different origins of sediments and gravels (appendix 3-5: fig. 2).

    24According to the dates obtained from this sequence, the 8th millennium BC was the terminus post quem for the incision. This corresponded to paleosoil 9, which was probably contemporary to the Klimonas occupation. The presence of flint flakes supports this statement, as this is the only place where they have been found in Atthiaki’s middle course.

    25Based on these facts, we proposed that the second incision occurred after both the Klimonas occupation (8 800 cal BC) and the formation of paleosoil 10. The incision probably occurred during the 6.2 ky BC cooling event which lasted for 200 years; it is also recorded in other alluvial contexts in the Eastern Mediterranean (Gasse and Van Campo 1994, Bar-Matthews et al. 1999, 2000, Gasse 2000, Berger and Guilaine 2009). After the second incision, the Athiaki Stream deposited sediments that were more than 4.5 m lower than its previous level, creating a new terrace (Terrace 2; fig. 3-11, C).

    26The third incision occurred after the 4th millennium BC (Paleosoil 11) and also contributed to the creation of a new terrace (Terrace 3), which is not part of this study.

    2.4. Athiaki and the wider Eastern Mediterranean context

    27Despite the small size of its catchment basin, the Athiaki Stream created alluvial terraces of more than 25m high. Comparing the environmental conditions recorded in Athiaki with palaeoclimate or palaeoenvironmental studies in the Eastern Mediterranean and Cyprus (Bar-Matthews et al. 1997, 1999, 2000, Fontugne et al. 1999, Devillers 2008, Hourani 2008, Kuzucuoğlu et al. 2010, Lespez et al. 2013, Berger et al. 2014, 2016, Kuzucuoğlu 2015), we observed that Athiaki recorded both local and regional events (fig. 3-12). In comparison with geomorphological studies in a Cypriot alluvial context, such as Maroni and Gialias, where the deposits are dated to the Holocene, the observations in the Athiaki Basin extent our observations back 15 000 years.

    Fig. 3-12 – Comparison graph of environmental and alluvial conditions between different regions in the Eastern Mediterranean: Greece, Cyprus, Israel and Turkey.

    Comparaison de conditions environnementales et fluviatiles entre différents sites de la Méditerranée orientale : Grèce, Chypre, Israël, Turquie. DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    28Based on oxygen isotopes from the Soreq Cave in Israel (Bar-Matthews et al. 1999, 2000), the humid periods recorded in the speleothem were represented mainly by the formation of paleosoils on the Athiaki floodplain. In about 24 000–23 000 cal BC, a humid period was recorded in lake sediments in Central Anatolia, as well as in the speleothems (Bar-Matthews et al. 1997, Kuzucuoğlu et al. 2010); during this period, at least three paleosoils (3, 4 and 5) were formed on the Athiaki floodplain. Paleosoil 3 was noted as being very different from the others, with local conditions that characterized a humid environment and regular alluvial flow. At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, even if climatic conditions were described as cold and dry in the Eastern Mediterranean (Bar-Matthews et al. 1999, Fontugne et al. 1999, Kuzucuoğlu et al. 2010), two more paleosoils (6 and 7) were formed in the Athiaki floodplain, which may demonstrate different local environmental conditions characterized as humid with regular river flow and the presence of vegetation.

    29At the transition of the Holocene, the sedimentation was regular, as is attested in other Mediterranean alluvial contexts (Lespez and Dalongeville 1998, Macklin et al. 2002), and -environmental conditions were warmer and more humid than before (Wells et al. 1987, Bar-Matthews et al. 1999, 2000, Rossignol-Strick 1999). During this period, a sapropel was formed in the Eastern Mediterranean (Rossignol-Strick 1999), due to wet conditions and rainfall that allowed the transportation of organic sediments to the sea by river activity. From a palaeoclimatic point of view, these settings may have favoured paleosoil formation in the semi-arid context of Cyprus. This is attested in Athiaki by the formation of paleosoils on the Athiaki floodplain (PL8 and 9). These conditions seem to be similar in different regions across the Eastern Mediterranean during the Holocene; for example, during the same period, paleosoils were formed in Central Anatolia (Kuzucuoğlu 2015, Berger et al. 2016), at Sidari in Corfu, Ionian Sea (Berger et al. 2014, 2016) and at Dikili Tash (Lespez et al. 2013) in northern Greece. Paleosoils have also been identified in Gialias (Devillers 2005, 2008) in central Cyprus and possibly in the Maroni Stream (Hourani 2008) on the southern coast of Cyprus.

    30As mentioned above, the 6.2 ky BC cooling event could be the reason for the second incision identified on the Athiaki floodplain. This event had an important impact on the local topography, since after this incision event the floodplain was located several metres lower than the previous level. The aridity of this period also had an impact on the Neolithic populations on the island (Weninger et al. 2006, Daune-Le Brun et al. 2017). This environmental instability is reflected in changes in the sedimentation of the Maroni Stream and is by a change in vegetation cover, after anthracological study (Daune-Le Brun et al. 2017). At this time, the Neolithic village of Khirokitia had been restricted and moved, while the site of Kalavassos-Tenta was abandoned (Weninger et al. 2006).

    3. The road profile and the evolution of Klimonas slope

    31At just over 40 m, the road section cuts the three terraces on which Klimonas was settled from the north to the south, close to their eastern edge (chap. 2). The upper part of the section was described in chap. 2, appendix 2-2; it evidences the very eroded remains of at least two PPNA earth buildings, their north wall foundation trenches and some pits. The middle section of the road profile, described in detail in Vigne et al. (2011a), evidenced that the sedimentation of Klimonas’ middle terrace “consisted of a succession of colluvial deposits furrowed by numerous erosive gullies flowing towards the south-east”. The earliest of these gullies were filled with mixed PPNA and Sotira deposits.

    32Only the lowest part of the profile (CRA profile), which has not been previously described, will be studied here. On the havara bedrock, the colluvium deposits already mentioned by Vigne et al. (2011a) were mostly characterized by non-sorted coarse elements. Deposits were interrupted by three periods of pedogenesis (fig. 3-13) that appeared as thick layers of fine brown sediments in a polyhedral structure; their colour was due to the presence of organic matter. Radiometric dates of the first of these paleosoils (17 949 ± 99 BP, UBA-24480, i.e. after 2σ calibration [19 715 – 18 822] cal BC) and the third one (8 872 ± 37 BP, UBA-24481, i.e. [8 224 – 7 837] cal BC) show that this sequence was formed between the Last Glacial Period and the beginning of the Holocene (appendix 3-4, fig. 3). The first paleosoil is almost contemporaneous with paleosoil 3, previously described, as it is dated close to the Klimonas occupation (c. 8 800 cal BC, chap. 11). The humid environmental conditions that provoked the formation of paleosoil 2, with regards magnetic susceptibility and organic carbon (appendix 3-6), may refer to the Bølling-Allerød (13 000 – 10 700 cal BC) periods, when the environmental conditions were warm and humid (Bradley 1999; Lowe and Walker 2014).

    Fig. 3-13 – Drawing of the lower part of the Klimonas road section (CRA) where paleosoils have been identified dating from the Last Glacial Maximum to the beginning of the Holocene.

    Relevé de la partie aval de la coupe de la route (CRA) de Klimonas, caractérisée par la formation de trois paléosols datés entre le Pléniglaciaire et le début de l’Holocène. Relevé et DAO B. Devillers, U. Paul Valéry Montpellier, Y. Franel, Inrap, P. Mylona, MNHN.

    Survey and CAD B. Devillers, U. Paul Valéry Montpellier; Y. Franel, Inrap; P. Mylona, MNHN.

    33The low presence of magnetic susceptibility and organic carbon in the layers (appendix 3-6: fig. 7) shows that the processes of alteration and pedological evolution were less important than sedimentation rhythm. On the other hand, the presence of iron and manganese is related to the erosion of the different kinds of bedrocks and soils in the sector (fersialitic soil, Mamonia formation, Moni formation; fig. 3-5). The formation of this sequence was very slow and corresponded to an accumulation of 0.007 cm/yr. The pedological evolution of some layers showed that the water table was quite high and constantly charged by the runoff. The two periods that paleosoils were formed in the CRA correspond to the formation of paleosoils on the Athiaki floodplain. These data showed that suitable environmental conditions in the whole sector of Athiaki and Klimonas enabled paleosoil formation.

    4. Discussion: Klimonas in its regional environmental and topographical contexts

    4.1. Reconstructing the original topography of the Klimonas terraces

    34If we put together the lowest and middle sections of the road profile (fig. 3-14) we observe a difference in altitude of more than one metre between them and the level of the most recent paleosoil, which contained a typical PPNA hearth pit (chap. 13) and can therefore be considered as corresponding to either the settlement or the abandonment of the PPNA village c. 8 800 cal BC. This suggests that the middle and lower terraces of the Klimonas slopes are not only historical cultivation terraces, but that they already existed during the occupation of Klimonas and that this topography was more contrasted than today.

    Fig. 3-14 – Profile of Klimonas’ terraces where the lower part has been formed by colluvial deposits. The green line shows the topography during the occupation.

    Profil de la terrasse de Klimonas où la partie basse a été formée par des dépôts colluviaux. La ligne verte montre la topographie locale hypothétique au PPNA avec l’escarpement abrupt entre les deux terrasses. Relevé et DAO B. Devillers, U. Paul Valéry Montpellier, Y. Franel, Inrap, P. Mylona, MNHN, J.-D. Vigne, CNRS.

    Survey and CAD B. Devillers, U. Paul Valéry Montpellier; Y. Franel, Inrap; P. Mylona, MNHN and J.-D. Vigne, CNRS.

    4.2. Environment of the PPNA village

    35The geomorphological study indicated that, at the time of the PPNA occupation of Klimonas, the climatic conditions were humid, the river flow was regular and the water table near to the surface. These stable conditions contributed to paleosoil formation on the alluvial plain.

    36Ten thousand years ago, the palaeotopography of the Athiaki Valley was different than today (fig. 3-15) as only the first terrace had been created, the river was situated about 15 m higher and the floodplain was wider. Fine elements such as silt, clay and the high water table provided suitable conditions for all agricultural activities.

    Fig. 3-15 – Topographical profiles of the Athiaki valley during the Klimonas occupation and today.

    Profils topographiques de la vallée de l’Athiaki durant l’occupation de Klimonas et aujourd’hui. DAO P. Mylona, MNHN.

    CAD P. Mylona, MNHN.

    Conclusion

    37Alluvial deposits are good indicators of the evolution of environmental conditions. The Athiaki fluvial deposits recorded alluvial activity from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Middle Holocene. By combining the transition from the Last to the Late Glacial Maximum and the transition from the Late Glacial Maximum to the Holocene, these deposits cover a rare chronological framework that is poorly studied in Cypriot. The beginning of the Holocene was marked in Cyprus by the first Neolithic societies and the installation of permanent dwellings.

    38The geoarchaeological study of the Athiaki deposits, in combination with other studies already conducted on the island (Deckers 2002, Devillers 2005, 2008), indicates that during the beginning of the Holocene, when the colonization of the island took place, the environmental conditions were stable and the river flow was regular. Those conditions favour the installation of the Klimonas PPNA village in the region and the exploitation of the alluvial environment for water, sediment and hunted game supply. High quantities of water were necessary for the construction of earthen buildings, and the regular flow of Athiaki consistently provided this, as an addition to the rain water (chap. 12 and 13). Rivers are also attractive places for game, in the case of Klimonas mainly the wild boar (Vigne et al. 2017a), which was widely consumed by the villagers. The fine sediments transported by the Athiaki and the generally wet environment favoured the growth of vegetation in this area, which was then exploited by the villagers for both their diet and construction.

    Annexe

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A01, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.bb9fq8f3
    Regolith substratum of the Klimonas slope terraces • Substrat régolitique des terrasses du versant de Klimonas
    Jean‑Denis VIGNE (CNRS), Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN)

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A02, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.47a956ve
    Geochemical and sedimentological analyses methods • Méthodes d’analyses géochimiques et sédimentologiques
    Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN)

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A03, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.40a45y0d
    Description of the fluvial terraces profiles under study • Description des profils de terrasses fluviales étudiés
    Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN), Benoît DEVILLERS (Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3)

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A04, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.937emcb1
    Radiocarbon dating of palaeosoils of the fluvial terraces • Datations au radiocarbone des paléosols des terrasses fluviales
    Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN)

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A05, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.a44fnsai
    Results of the sedimentological analyses of the fluvial terraces • Résultats des analyses sédimentologiques des terrasses fluviales
    Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN), Benoît DEVILLERS (Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3)

    KLIMONAS-Ch03-A06, https://doi.org/10.34847/nkl.a05exd07
    Sedimentological analyses of the road profile cut in the colluvial sediments of the Klimonas terraces (CRA) • Analyses sédimentologiques du profil de la route coupé dans les sédiments colluviaux des terrasses de Klimonas (CRA)
    Pantelitsa MYLONA (MNHN), Benoît DEVILLERS (Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier 3)

    Auteurs

    • Pantelitsa Mylona
    • Benoît Devillers
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    Mylona, P., & Devillers, B. (2024). Geomorphological evolution of the site and adjacent slopes and stream. In J.-D. Vigne, F. Briois, & J. Guilaine (éds.), Klimonas. Paris: CNRS Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/129io
    Mylona, Pantelitsa, et Benoît Devillers. « Geomorphological Evolution of the Site and Adjacent Slopes and Stream ». In Klimonas, édité par Jean-Denis Vigne, François Briois, et Jean Guilaine. Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2024. doi:10.4000/129io.
    Mylona, Pantelitsa, et Benoît Devillers. « Geomorphological Evolution of the Site and Adjacent Slopes and Stream ». Klimonas, édité par Jean-Denis Vigne et al., CNRS Éditions, 2024, https://doi.org/10.4000/129io.

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    Vigne, J.-D., Briois, F., & Guilaine, J. (éds.). (2024). Klimonas. Paris: CNRS Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/129kn
    Vigne, Jean-Denis, François Briois, et Jean Guilaine, éd. Klimonas. Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2024. doi:10.4000/129kn.
    Vigne, Jean-Denis, et al., éditeurs. Klimonas. CNRS Éditions, 2024, https://doi.org/10.4000/129kn.
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