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    Plan

    Plan détaillé Texte intégral The project The divisions of Egypt “Egypt, gift of the Nile”: until when? The layout of this book Acknowledgements Auteurs

    An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt

    Ce livre est recensé par

    Précédent Suivant
    Table des matières

    Introduction

    Hala Bayoumi et Karine Bennafla

    p. 10-17

    Texte intégral The project The divisions of Egypt “Egypt, gift of the Nile”: until when? The layout of this book Acknowledgements Auteurs

    Texte intégral

    The project

    1There are a number of reasons for the creation of this atlas: first and foremost, to fill a gap. As far as we are aware, no contemporary atlas of Egypt exists, whereas there are several atlases of historic and ancient Egypt, and archaeologists have produced substantial cartographic coverage. This gap is somewhat surprising given the fascination that this country holds over orientalists and tourists alike, and it is most probably due to the administrative division and the linear layout of the inhabited territory, which makes it extremely difficult if not impossible to depict the country in fine scale within a medium format book. Christophe Ayad’s work, Géopolitique de l’Égypte (Complexe, 2002), represents one of the few recent attempts to understand the country through schematic maps. The desire to provide the general public with an illustrated panorama of Egypt at the beginning of the 21st century has shaped the creation of this atlas, and we have drawn inspiration from the Lebanese model coordinated by Éric Verdeil, Ghaleb Faour and Sébastien Velut, and published by IFPO, CNRS Lebanon in 2007.

    2Our initial aim was also to produce a general public (and thus not fully comprehensive) overview of current work by researchers in the human and social sciences, especially those associated with the Centre for Economic, Legal, and Social Studies and Documentation (CEDEJ), a French overseas research unit based in Cairo since 1968. This laboratory, under the supervision of the CNRS and the French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, is remarkable for the vitality of its digital humanities department, which is staffed by some 30 Egyptian engineers, cartographers and geographers. Since 2007 this team has been updating Egyptian cartography as part of an official collaboration between CEDEJ and the Egyptian Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), a public institution founded in 1964 and the equivalent of the Office for National Statistics in the UK. This atlas is built upon the everyday work of the CEDEJ team, whose names appear in the list of contributors. The collaboration between a French overseas research centre and a national institute responsible for the population census is an example of successful international academic cooperation. Several previously unpublished maps in this atlas have been developed from data gathered in the 2017 census that was released to CEDEJ for this very project.

    3Finally, and this point is fundamental, our desire has been to create a work that not only presents French and European research into Egypt, but one which encompasses also the view and analysis of Egyptian colleagues, about 15 of whom responded to the call for contributions which was deliberately formulated in three languages: French, Arabic and English. A translation of the atlas into Arabic has been launched, since whatever the defenders of La Francophonie might wish, the Egyptian population speaks above all Arabic, followed by English: French is now effectively limited to a section of the middle and upper classes. Our most cherished hope is that Egyptians, young and old, can dive headlong into this work.

    The divisions of Egypt

    4Representations of Egyptian territory have varied across history. The dualist vision of Ancient Egypt, split between Upper Egypt (Ta Shemaw) and Lower Egypt (Ta Mehu), was expressed by the double crown worn by the pharaoh of the unified kingdom 3000 years BC: one white (Upper Egypt), the other red (Lower Egypt). This distinction was taken up by Arab geographers after the Arab-Islamic conquest, and then later by Egyptian geographers who customarily recognised two zones: Wajh Bahari (Lower Egypt) and Wajh Qebli (Upper Egypt).

    5Currently, the division depends on the different Egyptian public administrations, as is evident in their studies, maps and communiqués. For example, in 2017 CAPMAS divided the territory into four zones: urban governorates, the governorates of Lower Egypt (Wajh Bahari), the governorates of Upper Egypt (Wajh Qebli) and the frontier governorates. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Planning established an economic division of the country into seven regions (iqlim) in its Decree No. 181 of 1986: Greater Cairo, the Delta, the Suez Canal, Alexandria, Northern Upper Egypt (Shamal el-Saïd), Southern Upper Egypt (Ganub el-Saïd) and Assiut. This vision has also been adopted by the General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP), a body in charge of urban planning. Whatever the partition, the common standard spatial unit is the governorate (muhafiza), which represents the initial administrative link in the chain, created and delineated by presidential decree. The official administrative map of Egypt established by CAPMAS is currently divided into 27 governorates (urban, rural and frontier). This first level of the politico-administrative network changed little during the 20th century: there were 23 provinces in 1927 (muhafiza-s and mudiriya-s) and 25 governorates in 1960. At that latter date the governorates of Sinai, Port Said and Ismailia were created with the division of the Canal governorate: then in 1986, Sinai was split into North and South. The governorate of Luxor is the most recently formed, in 1996.

    I.1 The territorial divisions of Egypt

    Image

    I.2 Map of the governorates of Egypt in 2017

    Image

    I.3 Organogram of Egypt’s administrative division in 2017

    Image

    6At a lower level, the governorates are subdivided into rural districts (markaz-s) and urban districts (qism-s). The number of districts has remained remarkably stable in the Delta and the Nile Valley since 1917. Changes within this mid-level of the administrative network are most often related to urban expansion, whether planned or not.

    7The smallest administrative link is either the urban quarter (shiyakha) within the urban district, or the village (qaria) or town (madina) in the rural district. The towns within rural districts are in general parliamentary constituencies. Adjustments to the administrative divisions are the greatest at this level, with more than 1000 changes since 1996.

    8While the creation and delimitation of rural districts is in the hands of the Prime Minister, who can also elevate a village to a town, districts and urban quarters fall under the remit of the National Elections Authority of the Ministry of the Interior. Governors, however, have the power to create and change the names of villages (qaria-s). In a centralised and bureaucratic state like Egypt, where municipalities have limited powers and budgetary resources, the governorates are a crucial level, since governors, named by the president of the republic, have a wide field of action, especially in terms of regional development and the management of public services and infrastructure. More than half of all governors are retired officers of the armed forces.

    9In 2017, Egypt was an assemblage of 6,362 administrative units.

    10The maps in this atlas represent an up-to-date cartographic backdrop to the land.

    “Egypt, gift of the Nile”: until when?

    11This atlas is intended to unlock the vast country of Egypt (997,739 km2) located within the Mashreq and traditionally considered by Arab geographers as the very heart of the Arab-Islamic world (qalb el-alam el-arabi). While both the Libyan and Eastern Deserts represent some sort of disconnection, the Egyptians in the contemporary era seem to have less links (familial and economic) with the Maghreb than with the Sudan, the Middle East and especially with the Gulf countries, which provide much employment. Food culture is revealing in this regard: there is little or no couscous or mint tea; here one drinks Turkish coffee, and eats ful (fava beans), molokheya, koshari (a popular dish of pasta, lentils and rice), and mahshi (stuffed vegetables) with Levantine mezze to begin the meal.

    12The territory of Egypt describes a desert square, generally flat, except at its south-western border with Libya and Sudan, and along the Red Sea coast. There, the fault line of the Great Rift Valley has provoked horsts, such as the mountains of Sinai, a protuberance of the Arab-African granite platform bracketed by the trenches of the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba. Most of the territory is composed of sandstone plateaus, pierced by the verdant Nile Valley, which was patiently created over millennia and is now emblematic of “Eternal Egypt”. More than 90% of the population lives in this immense oasis; this narrow useable space that covers roughly 5% of the land. The Nile Delta and Valley are at the heart of national unity and identity, as was neatly summed up by Herodotus when he wrote “Egypt is the gift of the Nile” to underline the assimilation of the land to the river. But is the expression still relevant? In Cairo, the levels of pollution are alarming, and in the urban outskirts the canals, the very same that are used to water the verdant fields, have become rubbish dumps. Development projects in countries upstream, with Ethiopia to the fore, will reduce the availability of water (per inhabitant per annum). In 2030 the country will be approaching the threshold of extreme scarcity, an emergency that is too easily disregarded given the reassuring presence of the Nile. In 2015, the river accounted for roughly 70% of renewable water resources. While current annual consumption of water per inhabitant reached 604 m3 in 2015, according to the FAO this should drop below the 500 m3 mark by 2030, placing the country in a state of absolute water scarcity

    I.4 The physical geography of Egypt

    Image

    I.5 Water in Egypt: resources, availability and consumption

    Image

    I.6 Egypt’s main income and debt in 2017

    Image

    13This atlas was produced almost ten years after the release of the collective work edited by V. Battesti and F. Ireton and entitled L’Égypte au présent. Inventaire d’une société avant révolution (Sindbad/Actes Sud, 2011), which, on the eve of the uprising of 25 January 2011, was designed to present an overview of 35 years of transformations that had begun with the economic liberalisation policies launched by Anwar Sadat. Almost ten years after the events of 2011 the challenges faced by Egypt are evermore acute. How does one balance demographic growth with the imminent reduction of water resources in a country that has been shaped and organised for 7,000 years around a life-giving river, control of which has served and still serves as a source of political legitimacy? How can 100 million people penned into a tiny portion of the land be not only fed but also provided with a decent life without damage to the environment? As social inequality increases, poverty, the measurement of which arouses debate, has become the lot of roughly 30% of the inhabitants as of 2017 according to CAPMAS, which based its calculation on per capita consumption (sample survey).

    14As other countries have begun to imagine a world post-petroleum, Egypt must prepare itself for an end to abundant water and must rethink its development model. In 2019, this model was organised around several pillars: development of the desert, seen as a new frontier and an outlet for expansion; recourse to private capital, especially foreign; a list of major projects to define the planning policy of the country; the involvement of the army in economic management and spatial development. The focus on transport infrastructure, symptomatic of an obsession with road traffic, is also emblematic of the preferred liberal option and of the standard view advocated by international institutions with regard to development. The speed with which bridges, highways, tunnels etc. appear out of nowhere is just as bewildering as the fever for residential construction. The Suez Canal was widened and deepened in 2015 over the space of one year under the urging of President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi in order to allow two-way traffic and reduce the crossing from 18 to 11 hours. By encouraging an increased and faster flow of merchandise, the new transport infrastructure is supposed to ensure greater competitiveness and contribute to development – according to ideological orthodoxy. The question of the sustainability of this development is, for the time being, pushed to the background by the public authorities, even if the environment occupies a special place within official pronouncements.

    15Egypt remains a strategic country on the regional level due to its demographic weight and geographic position, sitting centrally within the Arab world and at the conjunction of Africa, Mediterranean Europe and Asia. The authorities intend to exploit this economic rent and reaffirm the role of the Suez Canal as the major international highway since East Asia has been the motor of the world economy for the past few decades. Canal traffic is primarily dominated by convoys of container ships representing more than a half of income and tonnage, ahead of oil tankers. Nevertheless, income derived from transit fees are subject to the ups and downs of political and economic circumstances, which can lessen commercial traffic, as in 2008, or divert it elsewhere. The stability of the Sinai and the whole of Egypt is an issue for this waterway, and it also depends on tensions in the Red Sea, as well as off the coasts of Yemen and Somalia.

    I.7 Historical timeline of modern Egypt

    Image

    The layout of this book

    16This atlas is divided into seven parts, beginning with Geohistory and Geopolitics, which recalls the major landmarks of the recent past in order to shed light on the present, especially the ebb and flow of Umm el-Dunia (Mother of the World) in the regional Arab scene. Because Egypt is a very old nation state, untroubled by any mismatch between the borders of the State and geographic, ethnic or religious realities, this first section will focus more on external pressures, such as political or military turbulence in neighbouring lands, shifts in migratory patterns and changes in the power relations with African countries situated upstream on the Nile. The pages devoted to migration, focusing on specific research themes, should not distract from the fact other participants in economic migration, such as the Chinese, likewise have a presence in Egypt, even if this aspect has not been covered. It is also noteworthy that Syrians in Egypt, whose case is mentioned, represent a minor inflow in comparison with the total mass of Syrian refugees who have been exiled since 2011. Their numbers are much greater firstly, in Turkey and Lebanon, and then in Jordan, Iraq and in Germany.

    17The second part is dedicated to Political Life, which has attracted much recent attention in the wake of the revolutionary events of 25 January 2011. This episode will be placed in perspective through consideration of the succession of revolts and uprisings throughout the 20th century, as well other specifically Egyptian features, such as, for example, being both one of the cradles of Arab feminism and the birthplace of the Muslim Brotherhood.

    18Thereafter, Society and Demography will look at socio-spatial dynamics through the results of the 2017 census. Given the impracticality of featuring all of Egypt’s regions in the same page, we have chosen the downstream area (i.e. the Nile Delta, the capital region and the Canal zone) in order to examine demographic evolutions. This part will highlight the deterioration of public education, disillusionment of the youth, and challenges to health. The Coptic Christian component of Egyptian identity will of course be mentioned. Although Egypt is majority Muslim and principally Sunni, it is notable for the ancient presence of a Christian minority which has played a key role in the national political project and in the cultural and economic influence of the country in the 20th century. For lack of space we have been unable to tackle the other Christian denominations, which include Greek Orthodox, Catholic, Maronite, Armenian, and Syrian. Furthermore, the data concerning the proportional size of different religious groups, whether Christians, Jews, Baha’is or Shiite, are controversial. The figure of five million Christians recorded in 2017 by CAPMAS has been strongly contested by Pope Tawadros II.

    19Part Four concentrates on Greater Cairo. This megalopolis has fascinated and fed the outpourings of researchers for several decades due to its disproportion, its unfettered growth, its public planning or lack thereof, and the extent of informality in the way the city functions, and in its spatial and economic production. Because Egypt is not simply encapsulated in Cairo, despite the linguistic confusion whereby Masr in dialectal Arabic can mean both Cairo and Egypt, we thought it essential to dedicate a chapter to Egypt of the Provinces, without actually being able to present a complete picture. We do, of course, regret the lack of coverage of oases other than Kharga and Siwa, and the relative silence on Middle Egypt, but unfortunately the conditions of access (and especially “security” measures) have restricted research in these areas, particularly for foreign scholars. Part Six is entitled Economy and Environment and sheds light, albeit on a limited scale, on the current neo-liberal development path and the questions it raises in terms of the environment and social cohesion. Certain standard economic inputs do not appear, such as transport, tourism and industry, though they crop up in other parts of this book. The atlas closes with a section on Culture and Heritage, which could not be missed, and we present a few national treasures, sometimes with international reach, like Egyptian cinema, the Mosque and University of Al-Azhar, and the great archaeological heritage.

    20This work inevitably has gaps, and it differs from classic encyclopaedic atlases in its presentation, its plan and its layout. Certain aspects of social, cultural and economic reality have been left aside, such as literature and the media. Our wish was to combine and summarise ongoing research whatever the disciplinary training of the author, the challenge being to provide accompanying documents with, where possible, a spatial dimension. Priority has been given to cartographic illustration. Some subjects are more suited to this than others, and as a result graphics have replaced maps for certain themes (like the economy). We hope nonetheless that the 50 two-page articles gathered here will help general public readers to grasp the salient facts of Egypt today.

    I.8 Map of the principal towns of Egypt

    Image

    Acknowledgements

    21We would like to express our warmest thanks to Claire Gillette, cartographer and geographer, whose patience, professionalism, and talents have ensured the successful outcome of this project. Thanks also to Éric Verdeil for his advice at the outset and to Blandine Genthon, director of CNRS Editions, for her confidence. Various organisations were kind enough to provide us with data and documents used in the creation of this book: CAPMAS, Airbus (satellite imagery), the Bibliotheca Alexandrina and AFP (photography). The Atlas also used open access online databases, particularly Natural Earth and OpenStreetMap. Our appreciation also goes to the proof-readers Pascal Buresi and Yannick Barthe for their constructive criticism, to Pierre Blanc and Baudouin Long who were consulted more than once, and to Fatiha Bouzidi for her rereading and feedback. And a final thanks to our translators Hana Ragab (Arabic-French) and Lou Guigues (English-French).

    22This Atlas received essential support from the Middle East office of the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF).

    Auteurs

    • Hala Bayoumi

      Hala Bayoumi, CNRS research engineer in mathematics applied to humanities and social sciences. She has been head of the Digital Humanities Unit at Centre for Economic, Legal and Social Studies and Documentation (CEDEJ) since 2007 and was awarded the CNRS Crystal Medal in 2017

    • Karine Bennafla

      Karine Bennafla, professor of geography at Jean Moulin University of Lyon, affiliated to the research group EVS (Environnement, Ville, Société) – UMR 5600. She was director of the Centre for Economic, Legal and Social Studies and Documentation (CEDEJ) in Cairo from 2015 to 2019

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    Bayoumi, H., & Bennafla, K. (2023). Introduction. In H. Bayoumi & K. Bennafla (éds.), An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt. Paris: CNRS Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.editionscnrs.58285
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    Bayoumi, Hala, et Karine Bennafla. « Introduction ». An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt, édité par Hala Bayoumi et Karine Bennafla, CNRS Éditions, 2023, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.editionscnrs.58285.

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    Bayoumi, H., & Bennafla, K. (éds.). (2023). An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt. Paris: CNRS Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.editionscnrs.58270
    Bayoumi, Hala, et Karine Bennafla, éd. An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt. Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2023. doi:10.4000/books.editionscnrs.58270.
    Bayoumi, Hala, et Karine Bennafla, éditeurs. An Atlas of Contemporary Egypt. CNRS Éditions, 2023, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.editionscnrs.58270.
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