Writing the War : battlefield guidebooks and the establishing of an « essential » touring narrative
p. 225-235
Texte intégral
1So ends a conversation between the novelist Henry Williamson and an unknown American tourist outside an Ypres hotel. In this short excerpt, Williamson captured an aspect of interwar battlefield tourism that caused tension between ex-servicemen, pilgrims and those regarded as tourists. Pilgrims and ex-servicemen, represented by organisations such the Ypres League, Toc H and latterly the British Legion, saw this reduction of the war experience to a few key sites as a denigration of the sacrifice that took place, branding such casual visitors as « the worst type of tourist »2. Yet in the years following the war, it was these same organisations that published guidebooks and sought to protect parts of the battlefield that gave rise to the growth in popularity of such sites.
2Existing studies of interwar pilgrimages tend to focus on the people and the ritual attached to such visits3. What remains unexplored to any great extent is how visitors found themselves in that specific place in that landscape in the first place. This chapter will explore the idea that the emergence of « key sites » within the battlefield touring narrative is directly due to their codification within the collection of guidebooks published during the interwar period. It will show how the first guidebooks, published by ex-service organisations, sought to retain the importance of place and to protect the wartime identity of the « hallowed ground » of the old Western Front, and in doing so, the memory of those who fell. Furthermore, it will show how this process unintentionally created a series of places of interest that came to be the central points of contention in the pilgrim / tourist discourse. Finally, it will show how the narrative of battlefield touring defined in these early volumes still influences the recent publishing boom of battlefield guides.
First battlefield guides : a sense of ubiquity
3In the years immediately after the Great War, one common feature of all groups was the ubiquity of the battlefield guidebook. All these guides, to varying extents, use the cemeteries and memorials of the old Western Front as a framework. This was extremely important for, unlike any other combatant on the Western Front, the British Empire insisted on non-repatriation of bodies thus making a battlefield visit necessary for a relative wishing to see the place where a loved one was buried or commemorated. The guidebooks therefore constructed a series of itineraries around the framework of cemeteries and memorials that aimed to capture something of the experience of war. The places, spaces, routes and activities codified within the itineraries served to establish a narrative of the « essential » battlefield tour.
4The first battlefield guidebooks were published by Michelin : rather than identify specific points of interest, they provided a general overview of the devastated region4. The popularity of the Michelin guidebook series was the beginning of a much greater trend, indeed, Lloyd’s study of interwar pilgrimage identified that there were « at least thirty » guidebooks in the English language published between 1919 and 19215. These guidebooks can be categorised into two distinct audience groups, those for touring and those for pilgrimage. The Touring guidebooks tended to offer advice on transport, accommodation and clothing, with the inference being that visitors would travel predominantly by rail to central destinations, such as Amiens and Ypres. From these central destinations motorcars, often with an attached driver / guide, could be hired to visit the more isolated spots. The isolated spots would, in turn, be visited on foot. J.O. Coop’s guide (1920), provided lengthy advice to would-be travellers. He suggested that:
« Unless the tourist is contented with a very superficial view of the battle area, he will be compelled to do a considerable amount of walking, and this over rough and broken country, often at least ankle deep in mud. Thick-soled stout boots are indispensable, and a good walking stick will be found to be of great service. »6
5Of the Touring guidebooks, there were two distinct variants : the battlefield specific guide and the more general continental touring guide. The former, shown in Coop’s idea of a « superficial view », often blurred the envisaged line between battlefield pilgrim and tourist. The expectation in the battlefield-touring guide is that it will be used to compliment information from a physical guide and not replace it.
6The second group of guidebooks was aimed at pilgrims, usually veterans or bereaved family. Of these books, Lt.-Col. Henry Beckles Willson’s Ypres-The Holy Ground of British Arms encapsulated a specific pilgrimage narrative that centred on the town of Ypres7. Beckles Willson was one of the founding members and driving forces behind the Ypres League – an ex-service group established to promote and protect the importance of the Ypres Salient. As an Inspector of War Trophies for the fledgling Imperial War Museum, Beckles Willson was used to the process of identifying material culture that could be used to convey a narrative of the war8. His guidebook recognised in the naming of the landscape, a way of retaining the wartime history. The partnership of civilian place names and interspersed battlefield names brought an authenticity to the visiting experience. Beckles Willson’s sanctification of the Ypres Salient landscape highlighted specific locations that captured the essence of the sacrifice, one such site was « the immortal Hill 60 », referred to as « world famous » and « one of the fiercest – if not the very fiercest – battle of the war »9. The sketch map, showing the positions of the belligerent armies is predominantly based on civilian geography, the one exception being the inclusion of Hill 6010.
7The publication of Beckles Willson’s guide also marked the delineation between those guidebooks intended for touring and those intended for pilgrimage. The clearest split is in the language used to describe sites of interest. The language of sacrifice and of hallowed ground was captured in the title of the Ypres League guide to Ypres : The Immortal Salient11. The apparent spilt between the pilgrim and the battlefield tourist, was evident in the intimacy of detail. Guidebook itineraries aimed at those who considered themselves as pilgrims contained a great deal of landscape context. For example, the section of the itinerary relating to Hill 60, in The Immortal Salient plots a route via Hellfire Corner, Perth China Wall Cemetery, Zillebeke Churchyard and with the suggested option of visiting Maple Copse and Sanctuary Wood, before finally reaching Hill 6012. Hill 60, in the context of both the itinerary and the focus of the text, becomes the central point of the journey. The same site within the Ward, Lock and Company general travellers guide to the battlefields lists Hill 60 and includes some additional detail on the site during the war. However, it is presented within an alphabetical listing of « Places of Interest ». The planned route of approach of The Immortal Salient is replaced by the identification of hotspots13.
8Beckles Willson’s narrative of the « immortal Hill 60 » established the site as a focal point for both the returning veteran and pilgrim, and, unintentionally, the burgeoning tourist industry. Writing in a 1927 edition of The Ypres Times, E.F. Williams observed :
« I have watched tourists arriving in the Grande Place on a short “trip to Ypres and the battlefields”… In they come, with a rattle and a clatter through the Menin Gate, all packed together in huge char-a-bancs, and after a raucous-voiced guide has pointed out the very obvious Cloth Hall ruins and allowed enough time for refreshers, they are whirled away again to one of the show places, perhaps Hill 60, and when they get home, they think they have seen Ypres and the Salient… »14
9Williams encapsulates the tension that arose between pilgrims and those visitors perceived to be tourists. More than this, he identifies the cause of the tension that was evident at locations that had become key sites for both groups of visitor. The quote, which is highly likely an amalgam of anecdotes, true or otherwise, uses both the Menin Gate memorial and Hill 60 as shorthand devices to show how the act of visiting these sites is the only objective of the casual tourist. The sense of frivolity is also objected to, yet it could be argued that locations such as the « Cemetery of the Tanks » on the Menin Road, advertised by many tour companies, including the Ypres League affiliated Battlefield Bureau, was every bit as frivolous15. Much to the chagrin of the Ypres League, the broad attraction of Hill 60 saw the establishment of an independent, commercially driven museum, café and viewing platform on the site. As Lloyd pointed out, for the majority of tourists the pull of Hill 60 was, « the desire to visit a section of the battlefields in wartime state »16. The « authentic » experience preserved at in the trenches of Hill 60, combined with the additional amenities ensured that it became an essential place to visit on a battlefield tour.
Changing guides during the inter-war period
10Within the British consciousness, Ypres took centre stage in the inter-war period. This is reflected in the number of guidebooks available for varying visitor groups to the former Salient and to other parts of the battlefield. References to the Somme, with the exception of the Michelin guides, predominantly appear in touring guides. Due to the scattered nature of sites across the lengthy Somme battlefield, publishers assumed that visitors would access them by car17. The intimacy of the Ypres Salient had allowed for a mixture of methods of visiting the battlefields. On the Somme, it was considered essential to have at least a bicycle. Indeed, one of the few guides that gave over a section to visiting the battlefields of the Somme was Bernard Newman’s Cycling in France (1936). The scene of bitter fighting in 1916 and beyond, the Butte de Warlencourt appeared in a variety of touring guides. The wartime importance of the site was made clear by the many units, British and German, chose to raise memorials on the summit of the Butte18. As at Hill 60, the adoption of the Butte de Warlencourt by veterans groups as a site of specific importance gave it authenticity and made it an essential place to visit. The same tensions arose between visitor groups ; H.M. Tomlinson’s All Our Yesterdays, captures two veterans watching on as a group of tourists tick-off another site to say they have « done » the battlefields.
« In the distance was a small cloud of dust ; it reminded us both, when we saw it first, of a belated shell-burst. It developed into a motor charabanc. It approached us, and stopped. A large party of men and women descended from it, and grouped about a guide, who interpreted the dumb outlook for them. Those people wandered about. They were looking for souvenirs, I suppose […] It was a holiday. They were touring […] Then their guide assembled them, and soon they were in the distance, only a trail of dust again. »19
11Also on the Somme, the Schwaben Redoubt appeared in a number of guidebooks. The attraction of the site to the casual visitor is immediate, the very name conjures up images of the battlefield landscape and encapsulates the wartime experience. In his guide to the British line, Lieutenant-Colonel T. A. Lowe implores people to visit Thiepval as,
« the hill and village of this name were what is known in military language as “key positions” […] to the north-east of Thiepval from the ruins of the famous Schwaben Redoubt can be seen […] the marvellous stronghold of Beaumont Hamel. »20
12Nina Stephenson-Brown, an Ulsterwoman who visited the Ulster Tower and Schwaben Redoubt, said of her visit that, « this to me was my goal ; this was the place in France I had longed above all others to visit »21. By imbuing these places with such importance, it was only to be expected that visitors would be drawn to the area. This same contradiction emerged at places such as the Menin Gate, Zeebrugge and Tyne Cot. The very act of immortalising a site within guidebooks caused it to become a site of interest for all tourists, not just those viewing the landscape in terms of pilgrimage.
13In May 1920, the Great War institution, Talbot House of Poperinghe, published their own guide to the Salient22. The Pilgrims Guide to the Ypres Salient notable is for its inclusion of the IWGC cemeteries. For the first time it is recognised in full that the cemeteries would become one of the focal points for visitors. The Talbot House guide not only used the cemeteries to create a series of lynchpins for the disappearing front line, it inter-wove them with illustrations of the devastated wartime landscape and chapters that relayed the experience of the Salient. One of the noteworthy features is the walking routes that are planned out, using Ypres as a hub, to various points of interest that use a combination of civilian and wartime geography to direct the individual. Alongside this atmospheric portrayal of pilgrimage were the practical guides to travelling in the Salient and a focus on aspects of the landscape that were pertinent to both the history of the war and to the Toc H institution23.
14Indeed, a 1945 pamphlet published by Toc H identified succinctly all those spots in the Ypres area that were places of memory for both the organisation and the broader narrative of war memory24. The map marked a combination of landmarks, memorials and graves of individuals who had a connection with the organization, not least of which was that of Gilbert Talbot, after whom the house was named. Places such as Kemmel Hill and Lone Tree Crater were generally popular locations to visit and appear in a number of guidebooks. Within Toc H pilgrimages, these same sites appear in every itinerary. A 1932 pilgrimage by the Huddersfield branch included Talbot House, Mount Kemmel, Hooge Crater Cemetery, Sanctuary Wood Cemetery, Tyne Cot, the Canadian memorial at Saint-Julien and Menin Gate25. The Pilgims’ Guide was aimed at those with a connection to the original house and the organisation, though this did not necessarily mean a connection to the war. The guidebook, then, with its personal accounts, walking routes and practical advice, became a proxy for a physical guide. In its use of pilgrimage language and touring suggestions it neatly straddled the line between tourist and pilgrim.
15In the immediate aftermath of the war, there were no architectural monuments, no designed focal points for the curious tourist, pilgrim or veteran alike. The collection of guidebooks that captured and promoted these sites reflect the different groups that visited the Western Front. The emergence of a range of tourist focal points, in the creation of an « essential » tick list of sites to visit was established by the desire to protect sites considered important to the memory of the Great War. These protections inadvertently highlighted spots that were considered 25to contain the essence of the war experience and were adopted by touring guidebooks and commercial companies as points of interest for the general public.
16The establishing of such groups as the Ypres League, headed by individuals like Henry Beckles Willson, sought to protect the sites intrinsically attached to the narrative and memory of the war. One such approach was to catalogue these sites in guidebooks to the battlefields. The sites that attracted the most collective memories had been places of military importance. These key military sites were often higher ground, such as those at Hill 60 and the Butte de Warlencourt. In the interwar tourism industry the draw of these memory hotspots was the same reason for the original military importance of these sites, was their command of the surrounding landscape. By default, the points that the guidebooks highlighted as essential to understanding the sacrifice and memory became the tourist hotspots of the interwar period.
Rediscovering the Great War
17The Second World War greatly influenced Western Front battlefield tourism for two very obvious reasons. First, the destruction wrought by the fighting of 1939-1945 meant transport and tourism infrastructures took time to be rebuilt, and secondly, the struggle against the fascist powers naturally dominated the popular imagination overshadowing interest in the earlier conflict. English-language guidebooks contained very little comment on the battlefields during the fifties and into the early sixties. Methuen’s 1956 Gateway Guide to France mentions the Normandy landing area, but omits the Great War sites completely, and its 1960 guide to Belgium and Luxembourg in the same series contains only a brief reference to the Menin Gate memorial.
18As a result, it was the looming fiftieth anniversary cycle of the Great War that brought it back to public attention in Britain. Therefore, it was in the mid-1960s that the battlefields began to be rediscovered by the British, slightly in advance of the French renaissance of interest. Significantly, this was also the period in which the veterans were starting to retire in large numbers providing them with the time to visit the sites of their youth either as groups or with their own families. The re-emergence of battlefield tourism was reflected in the 1965 volume, Battlefields of Europe, complied by the young military historian, David Chandler26. A decade later, the retired soldier, Lieutenant-Colonel Howard Green, used a similar format. His guide contained more information on hotels and local transport, but revealed the lack of options available to the tourist at that time. Arras alone was deemed to have an hotel of « excellent » quality27.
19However, the situation was changing rapidly, as a host of elements began to combine. Most important was the growing accessibility of the battlefields through the huge expansion in car ownership. This combined with significant changes to cross-Channel navigation in the form of the roll-on, roll-off ferry and the resulting dominance of the Dover-Calais and Folkestone-Boulogne routes28. As a result, the new generation of guidebooks implicitly and explicitly assumed that visitors would use a car and take the shortest crossings. Rose E. B. Coombs, in the introduction to her 1976 Before Endeavours Fade, probably the single most influential and popular Anglophone guidebook to this day, explicitly acknowledged the dominance of Dover-Calais29. She then provided three separate driving routes to reach Ieper / Ypres making no reference to any other form of transport. Over the next twenty years, all other guides shared this assumption30.
20Many of these guidebooks then take it as read that the visitor will remain utterly reliant on the car. Arguably, Before Endeavours Fade reveals this most strongly reflecting the dominance of the car to all forms of British thinking about transport in the 1970s and 1980s. Coombs’s meticulously planned circuits are supported by detailed advice about roads and provide directions relevant to the car driver. Thus, much of her guide works on the tacit and implicit understanding that visitors will arrive at sites by car and engage with many in relatively quick succession in order to complete her suggested itineraries. Only at more extensive sites such as Vimy Ridge, the Newfoundland Memorial Park at Auchonvillers-Beaumont-Hamel and at the Verdun forts is there the sense that the visitor will leave the car for a prolonged period.
21The maturing of the second generation of guidebooks, and transition into a third, reflected another emerging trend in battlefield tourism. With far more people now visiting and becoming familiar with the key, car-accessible, sites, there was a growing demand for more focused and in-depth guides especially as veterans were rapidly dying off and people were now lacking that expert input. This combined with the increasing popularity of genealogy fuelled by the massive expansion of digitised state documents available for download through the internet allowing many people to follow the Great War experiences of their relatives in much greater detail. The first signs of this trend can be detected in Leo Cooper / Pen and Sword’s « Battleground Europe » series, which commenced in the mid-1990s. Written as highly detailed micro-studies of particular sections of front with painstaking attention to detail, the guides allowed people, now often well-versed in where a relation fought and fell, to find the precise spot where their figure(s) of interest experienced war. Like other guides, non-academic historians, who were experts on the topography of particular battlefields, mostly wrote them. Most were, and are, built around car tours, but reflecting the demand for a more intimate experience, the individual itineraries in the guide usually advise the visitor to explore on foot31. Within this series are guides dispatching with the need for the car altogether including titles such as Paul Reed’s Walking the Somme (1997 and second, revised, edition in 2011) Walking the Salient (1998, reprinted 2001), and Walking Arras (2007, published for the ninetieth anniversary of the battle).
New directions and new interests ?
22More recently a variant on the third generation of guidebooks has arrived. Launched by Pen and Sword in 2012, its new series all have the subtitle, The Western Front by Car, by Bike and on Foot, reflecting the combined elements of the huge upsurge in the popularity of cycling in Britain with the desire to understand the battlefields in greater detail32. These older, slower, but infinitely more flexible, ways of seeing the battlefields are then underpinned by the most modern of technologies in the addition of GPS information. Backed up by smartphones and tablets with trench map packages, the visitor can now be confident that they are standing on the front line of 1 July 1916 when cycling across the Serre Road on the Somme or have reached the spot where great-grandfather’s platoon was hit by machine gun fire. The bicycle-using visitor informed by personal research into the primary sources, a good guidebook and modern communication technologies can therefore achieve a faint approximation of the experience of the initial pilgrims who had the sites interpreted for them by veterans conjuring up their experiences.
23Thematically, the third generation guidebooks have similarities and distinct differences from those available in the twenties and thirties. Alongside the return to the bicycle and walking, another very obvious similarity with the first generation is the overwhelming obsession with the British Imperial effort in France and Belgian. Relatively few guides treat the Belgian and French sectors with anything like the same degree of attention. A further element linking the first and newer guidebooks is the tourist gaze of the spectacular, which sits alongside the emotional register of sombre pilgrim. Thus, in the twenties the so-called « tank graveyard » on the Menin Road or the great German guns at Zeebrugge were highlighted. Now it is things such as the Cambrai tank recovered, restored and exhibited by a local hotelier in a nearby barn, and described as « an unbelievable, quite unique relic » in the latest edition of Before Endeavours Fade33.
24Where the later generation of guidebooks differs most is in their reflection of contemporary popular visions of the conflict that deems all soldiers the victims of an uncaring and brutal system dominated by class and racial prejudices. Although many guidebook authors would not regard themselves as supporters of such simplistic views, they nonetheless feel obliged to cover such things as the modern memorials to executed soldiers in Poperinge, and the fact that graves of executed soldiers can be found in cemeteries such as Aeroplane Cemetery near Ypres. They note the dramatic and moving inscription on Albert Ingham’s grave in the British plot of Bailleulmont commune cemetery, « Shot at Dawn. One of the first to enlist. A worthy son of his father34 ». Intimately connected with this fixation on victimhood is the interest in the graves of soldiers who enlisted under age. Largely forgetting that boys were routinely employed in dangerous occupations now exclusively reserved for trained adult workers, popular understandings of the conflict have made dead boy soldiers important symbols of the pity, and seeming futility, of the Great War. The graves of John Condon, aged fourteen when he was killed, Valentine Strudwick and Robert Barnet (both fifteen) are therefore now routinely mentioned in guidebooks35. No work of the twenties or thirties would have made reference to such sensitive subjects.
25It can therefore be seen that the Western Front battlefield guidebook have both constants and variants. In the twenties and thirties, a narrative was built around key battlefield and memorial sites. This blueprint then informed the renaissance of interest from the 1960s onwards. However, the new generation of guidebooks is structured around revolutions in personal transport with information-communication technology used to replicate the role of the expert veteran guide. At the same time, the contemporary guides reflect changing cultural perceptions of the conflict with space found for elements once ignored. The guidebook remains a crucial creator, interpreter and mediator of the Great War battlefields for British and Commonwealth visitors.
Notes de bas de page
2 Sir SWINTON, Ernest, Twenty Years After, London, Newnes, 1938, p. 1079.
3 LLOYD, David, Battlefield Tourism, Oxford, Berg, 1998 ; PEGUM, John, « The Old Front Line », in MEYER, Jessica (ed.), British Popular Culture and the First World War, Leiden, Brill, 2008 ; SWITZER, Catherine, Ulster, Ireland and the Somme : War Memorials and Battlefield Pilgrimages, Dublin, The History Press Ireland, 2013.
4 Misc., The Somme Volume 1, Clermond-Ferrand, Michelin, 1919.
5 LLOYD, David, op. cit., p. 30.
6 COOP, J. O., A Short Guide to the Battlefields, Liverpool, Daily Post, 1920, p. 13.
7 Misc., Ypres and the Battles for Ypres, Clermond-Ferrand, Michelin, 1920.
8 Imperial War Museum, EN1/1/TRO/028 Trophies : Army, GHQ France, Inspector of Trophies & Imperial War Museum, EN1/1/TRO/025 Trophies : Army, Major Beckles Willson’s correspondence and lists.
9 BECKLES WILSON, Henry, Ypres – The Holy Ground of British Arms, Bruges, Chas. Bevaert, 1920, p. 60, p. 49, p. 52.
10 Ibid., p. 50.
11 BRICE, Beatrix, The Immortal Salient, London, John Murray, 1925.
12 BRICE, Beatrix, The Immortal Salient, op. cit., p. 39.
13 Misc., Red Guide to Belgium and the Battlefields, London, Ward, Lock & Co., c. 1925.
14 WILLIAMS, E. F, « Ypres Calling », The Ypres Times vol. 3, n°6, April 1927, p. 153.
15 The Battlefield Historic Sites Travel Bureau, Brochure, 1920, p. 9.
16 LLOYD, David, op. cit., p. 119.
17 SWITZER, Catherine, op. cit., p. 135.
18 See COOP, J. O., op. cit. ; Col. LOWE T. A., The Western Battlefields, London, Gale and Polden, 1920 ; The Red Guide, Ward Lock & Co. ; Muirhead’s Belgium and the Western Front, London, MacMillan and Co., 1920 and LINDLEY P. , World War Battlefields, London, Great Eastern Railway Company, c. 1920.
19 TOMLINSON, H. M., All Our Yesterdays, London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1930, p. 537-538.
20 Col. LOWE T. A., op. cit., p. 42-43.
21 Quoted in SWITZER, Catherine, op. cit., p. 137.
22 B. B., The Pilgrim’s Guide to the Ypres Salient, London, Herbert Reiach, 1920.
23 After the war Talbot House founded an ex-service charity an adopted the « signalese » variant, Toc H, as its title.
24 BYARD CLAYTON, Phillip, and REV WOOLLEY, G. H. VC, The Salient Facts, London, Talbot House, 1945, frontispiece.
25 Cadbury Library Archive, Toc H, Section 3, M5.
26 CHANDLER, David (ed.), Battlefields of Europe, vol. I, Western Europe, London, Hugh Evelyn, 1965.
27 GREEN, Howard, The Cockpit of Europe. A Guide to the Battlefields of Belgium and France, Newton Abbot, David & Charles, 1976, p. 137.
28 CROMPTON, Gerald, « Transport » in YATES, Nigel (ed.), Kent in the Twentieth Century, Woodbridge, Boydell, 2001, p. 117-152.
29 COOMBS, Rose E. B., Before Endeavours Fade. A Guide to the Battlefields of the First World War, Plaistow, Battle of Britain Prints, 1976, p. 5. Hereafter BEF.
30 MIDDLEBROOK, Martin and Mary, The Somme Battlefields. A Comprehensive Guide from Crécy to the Two World Wars, London, Viking, 1991, p. 27.
31 For example, MITCHENSON, K. W., Battleground Europe : Epéhy, Barnsley, Pen and Sword, 1998, p. 83.
32 https://www.active-traveller.com/news/the-rise-and-rise-of-british-cycling [accessed 28 July 2016].
33 COOMBS, Rose E. B., BEF, 13th edition, 2010, p. 141.
34 Ibid., p. 9 ; COOKSEY, Jon and MURLAND, Jerry, Battle Lines : Ypres, Barnsley, Pen and Sword, p. 160 ; MIDDLEBROOK, Martin and Mary, op. cit., p. 47.
35 COOMBS, Rose E. B., BEF, p. 40, 44 ; COOKSEY, Jon and MURLAND, Jerry, op. cit., p. 156 and p. 217.
Auteurs
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Mark Connelly
Professeur d’histoire à l’Université de Kent. Ses recherches portent principalement sur l’histoire militaire britannique et la commémoration des deux guerres mondiales. Il a notamment publié, avec Ian Beckett et Timothy Bowman, The British Army and the First World War (Cambridge University Press, 2017), et cosigné, avec Stefan Goebel, Ypres (Oxford University Press, 2018).
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Tim Godden
Doctorant à l’Université de Kent. Ses recherches sont principalement basées sur l’architecture développée par l’Imperial War Graves Commission, tant pour les nécropoles que pour les mémoriaux.
Le texte seul est utilisable sous licence Licence OpenEdition Books. Les autres éléments (illustrations, fichiers annexes importés) sont « Tous droits réservés », sauf mention contraire.
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