1.1 Biblical women and historical saints

3For the EOTC, some biblical figures are of Ethiopian origin, like the Queen of Sheba (Makədda or nǝgǝśtä Azeb). The Ethiopian discourse recounts that back from her visit to King Solomon of Israel (1 Kings 10:1-13; 2 Chronicles 9:1-12; Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:32), she brought monotheistic belief to Ethiopia, first in the form of Judaism and later, and thus indirectly, Christianity. She bore Mənilək I and became the ancestress of the Solomonic dynasty. The Kǝbrä Nägäśt* (The Glory of the Kings) describes in detail her visit and Mənilək’s bringing of the Ark of the Covenant to Aksum. The monarchy ended in 1974 with the overthrow of Emperor Ḫaylä Śǝllase I, but the Queen of Sheba remains a figure of religious and cultural identification, trumping Mənilək I in the national memorialisation. The Blessed Virgin Mary (Maryam), although not Ethiopian, was a refugee with her family in Ethiopia according to some Ethiopian compositions (Nägärä Maryam*). In artistic representations Mary is omnipresent, mainly depicted as an Ethiopian woman. She is the most venerated saint in Ethiopia and the literature for her (like Mälkǝ‘a Maryam*) and about her (like Tä‘ammǝrä Maryam*) is immense.

1.2 Originators of Church feasts

4According to the self-conception of the EOTC, women not only brought religion to Ethiopia, like the Queen of Sheba, and the religion of Solomon, they also were the reason for church feasts due to their lives or deeds. The 33 Feasts of Mary (42 at the time of King Zär’a Ya‘ǝqob during the 15th century) celebrate all the stages of Mary’s life, even beyond death, and her miracles. One of the most significant festivals of the EOTC, Mäsqäl*, the Feast of the Cross is attributed to Queen Helena (Ǝleni) of Constantinople (3rd-4th century). The Church Fathers* like Ambrosius of Milano, chronicle her trip to Jerusalem, where she found the grave of Jesus with the remains of the True Cross. She immediately lit a torch to be seen. She erected the church above the grave in Jerusalem (Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also called Church of the Resurrection).

1.3 Historical saints

5Saints have been crucial for the development of the EOTC. Female saints with biographical evidence can be roughly divided into two categories: the queens and the nuns. They have fulfilled at least one of the four points to become a saint: 1. Miracles and/or good deeds; 2. Self-sacrifice; 3. Teaching, writing and missionizing; 4. Asceticism.

Figure 3. Stanilas Chojnacki, Female saints by Brancaleon

b) Nuns and abbey founders

7Some women devote their life to God and take the monastic vow. They live alone as anchoresses* or as hermits (baḥtawiyan *) to follow the ideal of eremitic asceticism. Nuns can also live together in a convent (cenobitic*). Ethiopian sources name Ǝdna, the mother of abunä Arägawi (5th-6th century) as the one who established the first nunnery.

8Zena Maryam (14th century) of Ǝnfraz lived for 25 years as a hermit in a cave (Wašša Ǝndrǝyas), later in a monastery at Lake Tana. She established a strict female asceticism through minimal nourishment (herbs, koso*). She had several disciples, like Säbälä Maryam. She argued about female physicality like menstruation and their consequences for liturgical worship. This discussion about biology was elementary for the development of the Ethiopian (male) perception of female saints. All aspects of the female body should be negated.

9Krǝstos Śämra (14th/15th century) abandoned her husband and her ten children following a vow and became a nun in Däbrä Libanos of Šäwa. Later she founded a convent on the island of G^wangut on Lake Tana and became the head of the monastery. She continued with her ascetic life and practised self-mortification like praying in a deep hole for days or standing for three years in the lake. She had many visions and preached about peace. Her image as a repenting sinner on the one side and on the other as a saviour of repenting souls from hell is unique in the EOTC. Her tomb became a place of pilgrimage.

10Fǝqärtä Krǝstos (17th century) was a martyr*. She was involved in a theological controversy between the metropolitan abunä Marqos and King Fasilädäs. Some traditions said she was part of the anti-Catholic movement. She was tortured and killed.

Figure 4. Walättä P̣eṭros discusses with Emperor Susǝnyos

11Saint Wälättä P̣eṭros (b. 1594, d. 1644) struggled against the installation of Catholicism under emperor Susǝnyos. She left her husband and started to live with other nuns, like Ǝḫǝtä Krǝstos, on Lake Tana. In 1624, she sought asylum in Aksum but due to her rebellion against the Catholic creed, she was brought back to court. There, she discussed with the Jesuits. Pedro Paez reported about her firmness. After the reinstatement of the Orthodoxy under King Fasilädäs, she travelled around to visit famous teachers, taught the right belief to her multiple disciples and founded seven monasteries. As Mother Superior, she defined nunnery rules and became archdeaconess. Her foundations were all fully self-sufficient. Her gädl* was written soon after her death and is said to be the earliest known full biography of an African woman. Women make pilgrimages to her grave in Rema and gather on the 16th of each month on the day of her remembrance at alternating homes. These gatherings in the name of a saint (maẖbär*) enabled women to discuss theological issues.

Table 1. Categories for visibility and collective memorialisation of women (selection by V. Böll)

Name of Saint	Reason for Visibilty/Memorialisaation	Historical evidence	Proven existence	Primary sources
Queen of Sheba	Ancestress of the Solomonic dynasty; religious significance	Relations to the holy land	No	Bible, Kǝbrä Nägäśt, Jewish sources, Quran
Ǝtege Mäsqäl Kǝbra	Church builder, strengthening of the independence of the EOTC	Abba Libanos in Lalibäla	Yes	Gädl [not edited]
Zena Maryam	Establishment of female asceticism; theological debates about biology (menstruation)	Monastery; disciples	Yes	Gädl; Gädl of her disciple Säbälä Maryam [not edited].
Krǝstos Śämrä	Establishment of self-mortification; visionary; repenting sinner and savior	Monastery, tombs	Yes	Gädl, chronicle, records of the Jesuits
Wälättä P̣eṭros	Theologian, defender of the orthodoxy, abbey foundress, archdeaconess, female religious leadership	Seven monasteries, monastic rules, theological debates, grave at Rema	Yes	Gädl, chronicle, records of the Jesuits

2.1 Female theologians and their significance for the EOTC

12Female theologians are accepted in the EOTC. They authored theological writings and religious poetry. Over the centuries women intervened in theological disputes. Two nuns were crucial in the resistance against missionaries; significantly, Wälättä P̣eṭros became famous and is honoured as “the defender” of the Orthodox belief. Other theologians can be mentioned here.

13Ǝtege Ǝleni (b. ca. 1431, d. ca. 1522), her royal name was Admas Mogäsa, wrote several letters to Portugal to establish a Christian Ethiopian-European network against the neighbouring sultanates. Her letter to King Manuel I of Portugal (1494–1525) is the oldest Ethiopian diplomatic document to Europe. Mateus, an Armenian living in Ethiopia, travelled on her behalf with a relic of the cross to prove the Christian belief of Ethiopia (see Source 11). Ǝleni is the author of two compositions, the Hoẖǝtä Bǝrhan* and the ‘Ǝnzira sǝbhat*, beautiful hymns for Mary. She promoted the translation of the Arabic scriptures and the reproduction of the theological manuscripts. Ǝleni founded the famous monastery Märṭulä Maryam in eastern Goğğam and linked it to the Ewostateans* doctrine. She was buried there.

14Ǝtege Säblä Wängel (b. ca. 1500, d. 30 November 1567) accompanied the Portuguese army on their way southwards to fight against the troops of Aḥmad b. Ibrāhīm al Ġāzī. She ensured the existence of the Christian kingdom. While the Portuguese stayed, she argued with them about the right creed. The Portuguese, impressed by her erudition, report in detail about her mighty influence on the EOTC.

15Saint Ǝtege Wäld Śä‘ala (Śǝltan Mogäsa, d. ca. 1661) taught her children the Orthodox faith, against the order of her husband, Emperor Susǝnyos, who had converted to the Catholic creed due to the Jesuit missionaries. The Jesuit sources repeatedly mention her theological impact. Her theological interest can also be seen in the comprehensive library she built in the Qoma Fasilädäs monastery, founded by her in 1630. Through her collection of theological works, like Mäzgäbä Haymanot*, she secured the rich stock of Ethiopian theological books.

16Remarkably interesting is also the life of Lǝya (15th century). She lived in a place called Q^wǝtǝrǝh and was known as a pious woman. Saint Iyasu (gädl) explicitly went to her for learning and serving.

17Ǝmmahoy Gälanäš Haddis (b. 1896, d. 19 July 1986) was a well-known master of qǝne* and a traditional church scholar. She studied theology with her father, qesä gäbäz Haddis Kidan, and became a specialist in andǝmta*. She taught qǝne to about 1,750 students. Her compositions are often cited by the EOTC. She emphasised the importance of singing, and women participating as female choirs in the liturgy on feasts. Expressing spirituality through singing and moving was introduced by the first religious songstress, Mary (Miryam) the sister of Moses (Exodus 15:20-21).

18Ǝtege Ṭaytu Bǝṭul (Bǝrhan Zä‘ityopya, b. ca. 1853, d. 11 February 1918), grew up in Däbrä Mäwi monastery, and studied theology. She could read and write Amharic and gǝ ‘ǝz and composed religious poetry in both languages. She founded Ǝnṭoṭṭo Maryam among other churches.

2.2 Benefactresses

19Women owned their own land and donated it to the EOTC, often founding churches or monasteries. Women appear very often in manuscripts as donors of furnishings, liturgical items like crosses and religious paintings and as financiers of precious illuminated manuscripts.

20A good example of the irreplaceable contribution of female donors to the maintenance of the EOTC is Ǝtege Bǝrhan Mogäsa, christened Wälättä Giyorgis and known as Mǝntǝwwab, (co-reign 1731–69, d.1773). With her deep theological knowledge, she took part in the discussions about the Trinity. Following the Qǝbat* doctrine, she established it as the official dogma of the court. She was a significant patron of cultural goods and she equipped libraries with precious manuscripts, like the 57 books she donated to Narga Śǝllase. She ordered the composition of the famous book Haymanotä Abäw*. By her command, not only her palace and church at Q^wǝsq^wam were erected, but also churches like Däbrä Śähay and Narga Śǝllase. She had the church murals painted and icons manufactured according to her ideas, and even images of her were engraved in the grand processional crosses for liturgy. Interestingly, the lists of the ministers and of the keepers of the sanctuary in Narga Śǝllase names several women, like liqtä dǝnagǝl Wälättä Qǝddusan, wäyzäro* Śahlä Śǝllase or even Ǝtege* Bǝrhan Mogäsa herself.