1. Association of camel and caprine

3As previously shown (Monchot 2014), the bone assemblage is clearly dominated by the camel (Camelus dromedarius) and by the caprine — sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus). These species make up a significant proportion of the assemblage from al-Yamāma throughout the excavated sequences, and the zooarchaeological results clearly show a subsistence economy largely based on these animals. They provide meat, milk, and wool. The camel also served as a means of transport from oasis to oasis. The high proportion of camel and caprine is not unusual in this area; they were the most common of the exploited terrestrial animals from late pre-Islamic/early Islamic contexts at Dūmat al-Jandal and from earlier periods in Saudi Arabia.

4Some of the ovicaprids or camel bones show cut or butchering marks (fig. 8.1) which are the result of disarticulation or filleting processes. The variety of butchery marks proves that the inhabitants of al-Yamāma consumed camel and sheep/goat meat. This is not an unexpected result as faunal remains represent consumption refuse recovered from domestic quarters.

2. Gazelle (Gazella sp.)

5Numerous samples were identified as gazelle among the different Uf of al-Yamāma, most of them from area K17 (Sounding 4), suggesting significant hunting activity by the inhabitants (fig. 8.2). The gazelle bones present characteristic osteomorphological features and a preliminary biometric study shows that these were smaller species (e.g. the Arabian gazelle, Gazella Arabica, also called the Saudi gazelle, Gazella saudiya) than the mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) (Munro et al. 2011; Thouless et al. 1991). The Saudi gazelle is not regarded as a subspecies of G. Dorcas (Yom-Tov et al. 1995). Notably, the Arabian gazelle, the smallest of the species, was an elusive animal that was apparently hunted to extinction in its Middle Eastern homeland, Saudi Arabia.

3. Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx aegyptia)

6The presence of the spiny-tailed lizard, already confirmed during the previous excavation seasons (Monchot et al. 2014), was confirmed. Numerous bones (n = 163) were found in Sounding 4 (area K17), in a domestic context and in Building 1, the mosque (area N6) (n = 33).

7The Egyptian spiny-tailed lizard or mastigure (Uromastyx aegyptia microlepsis) is present in central Saudi Arabia, the Sultanate of Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and in the north and south of Iraq (Wilms et al. 2009). This lizard is known locally as ḍabb (Eng. dabb lizard). It is a burrowing lizard which has a predilection for open habitats with sand and gravel substrates and sparse vegetation. This abundance of lizard remains associated with leftovers, especially in Sounding 4, confirms its anthropogenic origin, that is, its consumption by the inhabitants.

4. Ostrich (Struthio camelus)

8The ostrich is represented by 28 fragments of eggshell found everywhere in the domestic context of Sounding 4 (n = 20) or in the mosque area N6 (n = 8) (fig. 8.3). If the ostrich bones are quasi-absent in archaeological sites (with the possible exception of the Palaeolithic site of Umm el-Tlel in Syria; Bonilauri et al. 1990), eggshell fragments are known from various archaeological sites in Saudi Arabia (Potts 2001; Studer 2010; Monchot 2013) and in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and eastern Syria (see references in Summer 2003).

9The Middle Eastern ostrich or Arabian ostrich (Struthio camelus syriacus) is an extinct subspecies of the ostrich which once lived in the Arabian Peninsula and in the Near East. Ostriches also appear frequently on petroglyphs from prehistory to modern times, and in Islamic verse, especially in the poetry from Arabia itself, where these birds were common. Although the flesh is edible and the fat useful, the ostrich has been primarily valued for its plumage, notably the tail feathers, and for its large eggs (Laufer 1926).

10The question of the presence of ostrich eggs is interesting. Indeed, it is difficult to know whether they were consumed or whether the eggs were used as containers (Moorey 1994) or decorative elements (e.g. beads) as found in many countries in South Africa (Tapela 2001; Kandel & Conard 2005).

5. Domestic fowl (Gallus gallus)

11Only six remains represent the domestic fowl or chicken. One skull fragment, a distal fragment of a metatarsus, a proximal fragment of a tibiotarsus (Uf 106), and one fragment of a humerus diaphysis (Uf 156) were found in Trench A (mosque, area N6), whereas one fragment of a left proximal femur (Bp = 17.1 mm; Dp = 10.6 mm) and one fragment of a left distal femur (Bd = 15.3 mm; Dd = 11.4 mm) clearly belonging to the same individual, were found in Uf 435 (Sounding 4, area K17). Macroscopic inspection did not show any evidence of anthropic use such as cut marks or others traces of slaughtering. Nevertheless, these domestic fowl bones may be interpreted as food refuse although these species were not primarily used for consumption.

12The presence of some fragments of eggshell found in the sieve residue is questionable. They could have come from chicken or from wild galliforms, a species widely hunted and consumed.

6. Other species already attested during previous seasons

13Alongside sheep, goat, and camel, the inhabitants of the oasis kept other domestic animals, such as dog (Canis lupus f. familiaris), donkey (Equus asinus), and cat (Felis catus). These species are represented in a very low percentage, had other roles within the local economy, and were not generally used for food. Thus, the discovery of bones from these animals at archaeological sites is not a sign of consumption. In rare cases, however, bones were discovered with cut marks indicating that meat (or skin) was cut off with a knife, presumably for consumption.

14The donkey is represented by a second phalanx in Uf 434 and a proximal fragment of a first phalanx in Uf 413. The donkey, like the camel, was used as a beast of burden.

15The cat is present in a proximal radius and a fragment of ulna in Uf 137 (Trench A, mosque, area N6), and in three bones (proximal tibia, proximal ulna, and distal femur) in Uf 435 (Sounding 4, area K17, dwelling).

16Dogs may have been killed during hunting expeditions, or within the walls of the city, where they were attracted by food or rubbish.

17This year three bones of cattle (Bos Taurus) were found but no oryx (Oryx leucoryx) bones were identified, although its presence is suspected. Indeed, oryx bones are very similar in size and morphology to those of caprine (Peters et al. 1997); the intense fragmentation made their identification difficult.

7. New species

18Several new species were discovered this year, including two species of sea fish.

7.5. Golden eagle and unidentified birds

23Some bird bones belonging to two or three species were found and the specific determination is ongoing. It can already be stated, however, that a proximal ulna discovered in Uf 417 (Sounding 4, area K17) proves the presence of a large Accipitridae, undoubtedly the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) (fig. 8.7) (Lepage 2007). While this raptor may have been captured for its feathers, Bundy reported communal roosting of Eastern imperial eagles in Saudi Arabia and northern India (quoted in Watson 1988).

Table 8.1

UF	N	Camel	Cap	Gaz	Bos	Dog	Cat	Hare	Equid	Lizard	Rodent	Chicken	Bird	Ostrich	SH	MH	LH	IND
62	203	42	45							1							35	80
63	19	15																4
66	3	1																2
67	4	2																2
68	39	10	4															25
71	115	13	2														40	60
72	150	49	20			7											13	61
79	2		2
82	16		9							1			1		5
83	3																	3
85	18	4	2															12
87	2		2
89	1		1
94	7		2															5
104	3																	3
105	97	7	10											1	1			78
106	201	7	15							2		3	1		26		17	130
107	1	1
108	18		3															15
111	74	44	16															14
112	11	4	4															3
114	3																	3
115	11		3															8
116	2		2
118	17		3														3	11
119*	29	2	15	1						2								9
120	14	2	5	2										1				4
121	1		1
122	10	2	2														1	5
123*	63	2	12								2				8	4	8	27
124	1															1
125	25	8	7															10
126	16		7														4	5
130	5		3												2
132	121	9	38											2			6	66
133	12		1															11
137	77	1	16				3								3		48	6
138	322		84	2						2	7			1			6	220
139	2		1												1
145	15	1	2															12
146	2		1															1
147	37		15							1								21
148	306	8	99	4						6				2			6	181
149*	22		1							1								20
153	37		7							3				1				26
155	16		5														2	9
156	76	2	22								4	1				5		42
157	150	2	6							10								132
158	37		9														1	27
159	42		7							4							3	28
218*	87		2															85
P.226	3		2															1
401	23	7	5															11
402	13	2	1											1				9
409	2			1														1
410	29	14	8															7
411	663	68	198	7	1					22			1	1	2	1	70	292
412	27	8	5															14
413*	793	36	117	23	2				1	57	1		5	1	33		24	494
414	24	4	8							1					2			9
415	351	66	35			1				11			4	7		2		225
416	10	4																6
417	330	34	82			1		3		14	3		9	2		1	21	160
418	85	25	20															40
419*	263	10	59	1						36	4		3		9	3	16	122
422	147	47	16							5	1		3	1			8	66
423	335	58	96	3						7	1		3	1			10	156
424	127	17	32							1			2	2	2			71
426	50	1	7															42
427*	135	14	33			2								1	5		6	74
430	12	1	2											1				8
431	2		1															1
433	128	2	7														11	108
434	28		7						1									20
435*	90	17	20				2			3		2						46
437	214	26	101	1						3			2	2			3	76
439*	224	22	14							1							10	177
440	13	1	3															9
441	116	23	18							2								73
TOT	6782	745	1410	45	3	11	5	3	2	196	23	6	34	28	99	17	372	3784

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7