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Textile Contrasts at Berenike
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1The Red Sea port of Berenike lies almost off the bottom of the map in the far south-eastern corner of the Roman Empire (Fig. 1). Residents, ancient and modern, have always been acutely conscious of the attenuated lines of communication and supply that lead to the site, and govern their lives. Elsewhere in this volume the archaeology and history of Berenike is reviewed in greater detail by other members of the Berenike project, and key results of the most recent research are presented for the first time.1 It is sufficient to note here that it was a vibrant, cosmopolitan port, full of contrasts in every aspect of its daily life. The following brief overview of the textile finds concentrates on two types of contrast: one reflects changes through time, the other the spectrum of the site’s ethnic diversity.
2The present writers took part in the study seasons at Berenike from 1995 to 2001. After an intermission of some eight years Alexandra Pleşa from the Free University of Amsterdam has now taken over the recording and study of the textiles, and her first interim report will be published shortly.
3During the first eight seasons of excavation some 3,400 textile fragments were recovered, and have been recorded in detail. Almost all of them are comparatively small (Fig. 2).2 They were found in rubbish deposits, which were often heavily eroded (Fig. 3). Moreover, they were impregnated and degraded with salt from the rising local water-table. Many of them were stiff like cardboard, and had to be recorded in that condition because there was insufficient water on site in those days to wash them repeatedly.
4There are two principal deposits of rubbish at Berenike. The earlier –ringed on the plan in Fig 4– were interleaved middens (‘trash dumps’) containing material jettisoned during the Neronian and early Flavian periods.3 The datable pottery and dated ostraka indicate a closing date in the reign of Titus, as Rodney Ast has stated elsewhere in this volume. The pre- and early Flavian settlement, however, that was responsible for the build-up of the middens has not yet been located and investigated. The later rubbish deposits, by contrast, were occupation layers in and between buildings in the prominent late fourth- and fifth-century town further to the east.4 A historical source referring to events in AD 524-525 reveals a settlement by then in terminal decline.5 There is no post-Roman occupation.
5The early textile group can be considered first. The pre- and early Flavian wool fabrics were of excellent quality, presumably reflecting the tastes and standards of the military element in the contemporary population. Papyri indicate that the Roman army were particularly demanding customers for Egyptian weavers. A much-quoted papyrus (BGU VII, 1564), for instance, lays down exact and detailed specifications for a military tunic, 4 cloaks and a wool blanket on order from the weavers of Philadelphia; but, despite the fact that they had received an advance payment for the work, a later document contains their plea for more time to complete the order.6 It is no wonder, therefore, that soldiers commonly had recourse to the open market or the generosity of relatives to cover their clothing needs.7
6Clothing dyed in reds (Fig. 5) and blues, often with narrow tapestry-woven clavi (Fig. 6), was standard attire. Checks (Fig. 7) and variegated stripes (Fig. 8) are more representative of furnishing fabrics, of which there were plenty at Berenike to ease the otherwise Spartan surroundings.
7The largest early Roman textile find (measuring over 64 cm x 40 cm) is a recycled object incorporating pieces of tunic with clavi and a dark brown open weave which may have served as a lining fabric (Fig. 9, 10). The textile’s precise function in this form is not self-evident; but it highlights the challenge of making sense of small scraps of fabric. Future progress on this issue at Berenike will depend on Hero Granger-Taylor’s invaluable discussions of the larger, more diagnostic textile fragments from Didymoi and Masada.8
8Linen clothing was worn less often than wool at Berenike, a phenomenon noted at other Eastern Desert sites, as Lise Bender Jørgensen reveals elsewhere in this volume. The fragment in Fig 11 seems to have been the corner of a fine-woven decorative textile, perhaps a coverlet. The apparently empty band still contains traces of narrower bands successively in red, blue and green wool yarn, together with knotted warp ends along one edge and tiny wool-wrapped bobbles integral with the original tapestry-woven structure on the adjacent edge. Fig 12 shows a length of everyday flax webbing in basket weave.
9Goat hair in naturally occurring colours was employed for hard-wearing bags (Fig. 13) and straps (Fig. 14). The hair was probably harvested from local animals, and locally woven. The yarn was regularly plied for extra tensile strength; for it was recognised that goat hair fibres with their less prominent surface scale structure interlock less readily than sheep’s wool fibres.9 Goat hair remained a major resource throughout Berenike’s history.
10Many of the wool (but not linen) textiles ended their useful life in amalgams of rags sewn together with goat-hair thread into thick pads (kentrones).10 They may have served some as yet undefined utilitarian purpose, possibly as cushioning for the burdens of pack animals or as fenders for shipping. The example in Fig 15 measures about 40 cm x 30 cm overall. Similar amalgams turn up in late Roman contexts in Berenike, too.
11An unexpected and important find from the midden complex was an example of wool taqueté, otherwise known as weft-faced compound tabby or vestis polymita (Fig. 16, 17).11 The reversible pattern in taqueté was woven by a semi-mechanised process still practised in Iran today on the immense vertical zilu loom (Fig. 18, 19).12 The Berenike fragment is arguably the earliest securely stratified and dated taqueté in the Roman world. The technique, however, may have been invented in Ptolemaic Alexandria two centuries earlier.
12The sheer quantity of cotton cloth identified at Berenike was initially surprising –between 18% and 28% of the early textile corpus, depending on find-spot: for cotton is normally regarded as an exotic fibre.13 Most of it was plain (Fig. 20), some of it very fine indeed –and some of it was woven as blue check (Fig. 21).
13There is a technical feature to be explained at this point. A spinner can spin yarn on a hand-spindle either in a clockwise or an anti-clockwise direction. To avoid confusion, the clockwise direction is described by textile archaeologists as ‘Z-spin’, anti-clockwise as ‘S-spin’. The central stroke of the letter corresponds to the direction in which the fibres lie in the spun yarn (Fig. 22). Spin direction was dictated in antiquity by local convention. Spinners in the Nile Valley normally produced S-spun yarn. The cottons shown in Figs 20 and 21, however –and most other cottons from the early Roman middens– contain only Z-spun yarn. (They can be described as ‘Z/Z-spun cottons’, i.e. Z-spun yarn in both warp and weft.) That suggests that they are intrusive to the Nile Valley, and strong circumstantial evidence from archaeology and written sources points to India as their origin.14
14The middens yielded two remarkable types of Indian cotton artefact which deserve comment here.
15The first of them is sailcloth. A piece of crumpled medium-weight cotton fabric (BE97 0103) (Fig. 23A, 23B) displays narrow bands which had been sewn to it both horizontally and vertically to form a grid pattern. It echoes the appearance of the sails frequently depicted in Roman art,15 but paralleled by just one find that is unequivocal: part of a linen sail from a late Ptolemaic or early Roman burial near Luxor.16
16The bands at Berenike were either purpose-woven webbing (Fig. 24) or plain cloth strips with the raw edges turned under (Fig. 25).17 Their function can be seen on a detailed depiction of a ship at Ostia (Fig. 26).18 Where the reinforcing bands cross, brailing rings were sewn, through which the ropes passed to raise or lower the sails. Wooden and cattle-horn brailing rings have come to light in some numbers at Berenike (Fig. 27) and Myos Hormos.19 The question of where such sails, designed to a Mediterranean blueprint, but made of Indian cotton, and repaired only with Indian thread, were actually constructed, is a topic of lively debate.
Fig. 26
Drawing of a ship on a funerary relief from Ostia showing brailing rings at junctions between reinforcing strips (after C.V. Daremberg and E. Saglio 1877-1919).
© C.V. Daremberg and E. Saglio
17The second type of notable textile is an item which Indian sailors aboard the ships in the India trade brought with them –comfortable cotton sleeping mats with a thick pile. They have stout plied warp and carry a pile of Ghiordes knots on one side, or in one case on both sides (Figs 28, 29).20 Their qualities are demonstrated well by this reconstruction in cotton by Lena Hammarlund (Fig. 30). Paradoxically, two closely similar knotted-pile mats of almost exactly the same date have been discovered in the auxiliary fort at Vindolanda near Hadrian’s Wall, at the opposite corner of the Empire; but they were made of wool.21 There is nothing like them known so far in the heart of the Empire.
18Neither cotton sailcloth nor cotton pile sleeping mats are known at Berenike after the Flavian period. This is unlikely to be a mere accident of deposition and survival.
19Fast forward now in time, some 250 years. Comparatively little was happening on the ground at Berenike. But in the Empire as a whole the period saw a slow revolution in Roman costume, under the influence of fashions on the periphery. Compare the clothing of the soldier in Fig 31 –a reconstruction by Graham Sumner based on second-century textiles from Mons Claudianus– noting the narrow unpretentious clavi on his cape and tunic, with the costume of a fourth-century officer shown on a wall painting in the catacomb on the Via Latina in Rome (Fig. 32).22 Note the elaborate figured tapestry-woven clavi, roundels and swastikas on his clothing. An increasing richness of dress, but coupled with a marked lowering of actual technical quality, can be observed in the Berenike textile repertoire, too.
Fig. 32
Painting of a member of the auxilia palatina in Rome by Graham Sumner based on a wall-painting in the catacomb on the Via Latina, Rome (by courtesy of Graham Sumner).
© G. Sumner
20The late Roman textiles were found in rubbish dumped in abandoned buildings in the late fourth/fifth-century town or in the alleyways between them (Fig. 33, 34).
21Some pieces belonged to household furnishings, like the bright wool scraps in Figs 35 and 36. The tapestry-woven bud on the fragment in Fig. 37 is characteristic of linen curtains, which are marked by a scatter of repeated small motifs.23 A sixth-century mosaic in the church of San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, illustrates the style and function (Fig. 38).
22Another textile scrap can be identified as the corner of a rectangular wool cloak, with a typical H-shaped blue tapestry motif in each corner (Fig. 39). While the form of the cloak is familiar (Fig. 40), the textile was woven from undyed pigmented wool and the quality of its workmanship is not of the best.
23Fancy wool taqueté was not uncommon in late Roman Berenike (Fig. 41A, 41B, 42A, 42B). Surviving fragments are often well worn on one side, and virtually unworn on the other, confirming that they had served to encase feather bolsters on beds and couches.24
24There are some exceptional items in the late assemblage, too. Figs 43A and 43B show some simple linear embroidery on what may have been a wool pouch flap. Embroidery was a very unusual mode of decoration in the Roman world.25
25There was much discussion about the possible function of the object appearing in Fig 44A. Parallels, including two more examples from Berenike to be published by Alexandra Pleşa, suggest that it was the casing of a child’s felt ball –created in a wrapping technique called ‘god’s eye’ (Fig. 44B).
26On close examination the scrap of heavily abraded linen BE96 0290 (Fig. 45) was seen to have been decorated originally with lines of tiny blue wool loops filling a tongue-shaped motif that was framed in red. (The red may have been painted on the flax warp as a guide to the weaver.) A similar motif and technique can be observed in a detail from a much better preserved example of the same class of textile, now in the Abegg-Stiftung, Bern (Fig. 46). The complete textile is a wall-hanging found in Egypt –the so-called ‘Elijah hanging’– radiocarbon-dated to the fifth or early sixth century AD (Fig. 47).26 It measures 3 m high and at least 3.5 m wide, so presumably the Berenike fragment in its original state once adorned a public building in the late Roman town, arguably a church, to guess from the Christian iconography of the parallels.27
27Indian Z/Z spun cottons make up about 25% of the late assemblage. Check decoration in various styles was still very popular (Fig. 48, 49).28
28The most exciting late Roman cottons, however, were resist-dyed in blue, a technique known in Roman Egypt on wool, but associated especially with India. The motifs were first painted on the undyed cloth with a resist medium like wax. When the cloth was dipped into the dye bath, only the unwaxed, background, areas took up the dye. In the pieces shown in Figs 50 and 51 the motifs are dot rosettes, well documented in Indian art.29 Other fragments may depict a lotus bud (Figs 52A, 52B) and a four- or eight-petalled flower (Figs 53A, 53B). They may be interpreted as remains of wall hangings or curtains, but they could equally well be from clothing worn by resident Indians.
29In contrast to the Indian cotton, textiles woven exclusively from S-spun cotton and, therefore, (on the basis of the argument advanced above) likely to have been woven in the Nile Valley, are far less memorable. Figs 54, 55, 56, and 57 illustrate the range of qualities in circulation. Nevertheless, they make up another 25% of the textile finds from the late Roman town site.
30In the hope of establishing the origin of the S-spun cottons more precisely, the present writers went to study the Meroitic and post-Meroitic (‘X-Group’) textiles from Qasr Ibrim in Lower Nubia, a town and fortress on the Nile about 180 km south of the First Cataract on the Nile at Aswan. During the first five decades AD, almost all clothing at Qasr Ibrim was woven from locally-grown cotton: all the yarn used was S-spun.30 We found strong echoes there of the Berenike S-spun cotton fabrics, but major differences, too. At Berenike there was no echo of the complex plaited Meroitic fringes of Qasr Ibrim.31 Moreover, the blue wool brocading (Fig. 58) and blue tapestry-woven bands (Fig. 59) on S-spun cottons at Berenike do not belong to the core Nubian tradition. One must look perhaps for their source closer to the Roman frontier and to the zone of immediate Roman influence. One is tempted to associate them with the so-called ‘Eastern Desert Dwellers’, often equated with the migrating Blemmyes, who had a significant presence at Berenike in later Roman times.32
31Most of the textiles discussed in this paper arrived at Berenike on the backs or in the baggage of their owners. We have seen evidence for the clothing of the local garrisons in and around the port in its earlier Roman phases. Indian sailors and merchants seasonally resident at Berenike jettisoned their distinctive rags on the spot throughout the site’s history. When in later years an influx took place of desert peoples from the south, their presence can be concluded from their rubbish. All told, the textiles offer a vivid snapshot of the port’s fluctuating population –it was an exciting, but challenging, place to be.
Acknowledgements
32We are grateful to Professors S.E. Sidebotham and W.Z. Wendrich for inviting us to contribute to the work of the Berenike Project and to the Pasold Research Fund, the Society of Antiquaries of London, the British Academy and the G.A. Wainwright Fund for Near Eastern Archaeology for travel grants. Drs Pamela Rose and Alan Clapham very kindly facilitated our recording and research on the textile corpus from Qasr Ibrim.
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Abbreviations
BGU VII: Vierck P. and Zucker F. (eds), 1926. Papyri, Ostraka und Wachstafeln aus Philadelphia im Fayûm, Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.
P.Mich. VIII: Youtie H.C. and Winter J.G. 1951. Papyri and Ostraca from Karanis, University of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series 50, Ann Arbor.
Tab.Vindol. II: Bowman A.K. and Thomas J.D. 1994. The Vindolanda Writing Tablets: Tabulae Vindolandenses II, London, British Museum.
Notes de bas de page
1 Sidebotham 2011; Sidebotham and Zych 2011; Sidebotham 2015.
2 Wild and Wild 1996; 1998; 2000; 2007; Wild 2006.
3 Bagnall, Helms and Verhoogt 2005, 4-5; cf. Sidebotham and Zych 2011, pp. 52-57.
4 Sidebotham 2011, pp. 259-282.
5 Sidebotham 2011, 280 with the bibliography.
6 Wild 2003, p. 39; Dross-Krüpe 2012, pp. 219-220.
7 Tab.Vindol. II, 346; P.Mich. VIII, 467, 468, 471, 477; Propertius, Eleg. IV, 3, l.18, l.33 (the reading of line 34 may be relevant but the text is corrupt) (ed. Fedeli 1984).
8 Cardon, Granger-Taylor and Nowik 2011; Sheffer and Granger-Taylor 1994.
9 Batcheller 2001.
10 Cardon, Granger-Taylor and Nowik 2011, pp. 276-280.
11 Wild and Dross-Krüpe, forthcoming, for a full account of the weave and its place in Roman textile technology.
12 Vogelsang-Eastwood 1988; Thompson 2003, 207-209; Ciszuk 2004.
13 Wild 1997.
14 Wild and Wild 2014a, pp. 211-212; Wild and Wild 2014b, 90, pp. 100-102; Sidebotham 2011, pp. 223-229; Tomber 2008, 44-50; eadem 2012, pp. 205-206.
15 Wild and Wild 2001, pp. 214-215; Wild 2004.
16 Schoeffer, Cotta and Beentjes 1987; Wild and Wild 2001, pp. 215-217; Whitewright 2011.
17 Wild 2002.
18 Graefe 1979, pp. 121-123, Abb.133, Taf.124, 2.
19 Sidebotham and Zych 2011, p. 142, Fig. 12-57, 12-58, 12-59 with the bibliography.
20 Wild 2013.
21 Wild and Walton Rogers 2007.
22 Sumner 2012, p. 118 Fig. 19.1; cf. idem 2009, p. 109, pl. 29.
23 Nauerth 2009, p. 104 Figs 5, 6 with the bibliography.
24 Pritchard 2014, pp. 52-53; Wild and Dross-Krüpe, forthcoming.
25 Dross-Krüpe and Paetz gen. Schieck 2014; Wild and Dross-Krüpe, forthcoming.
26 Schrenk 2004, pp. 47-50.
27 Schrenk 2004, 50; on Berenike's church: Sidebotham 2011, pp. 272-275.
28 Wild and Wild 2008a, p. 231; Wild and Wild 2014a, pp. 220-221.
29 Wild and Wild 2014a, pp. 223-225.
30 Wild and Wild 2008b; Wild, Wild and Clapham 2008; Wild and Wild 2014c.
31 Crowfoot 1984.
32 Barnard 2008; 2013.
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The Eastern Desert of Egypt during the Greco-Roman Period: Archaeological Reports
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- Trzciński, Jerzy. Zaremba, Małgorzata. Nejbert, Krzysztof. Kaproń, Grzegorz. (2022) Source of Raw Materials and Its Processing for the Manufacturing of Ptolemaic Faience Bowls from Tell Atrib (Nile Delta, Egypt). Materials, 15. DOI: 10.3390/ma15186251
The Eastern Desert of Egypt during the Greco-Roman Period: Archaeological Reports
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