VIIa. Lexicon

p. 142-152


Texte intégral

1This lexicon proposes commonly adopted definitions for some of the technical terms employed in the present manual.
These definitions are based on existing publications to which the reader can refer for more detailed information (see e.g. Y
on 1981; Balfet et al. 1989; Shepard 1956; Rice 1987; Rye 1981, Orton et al. 1993; Roux, Courty 2019; etc.).
Thematic plates (shapes, manufacturing techniques, surface treatment) illustrate the text and are inserted as tools to correctly complete the charts provided in the section devoted to classification and ceramic description.

2Amphora
أمفورة
amfūra
A container employed for transporting products. It is usually tall bearing two handles enabling it to be carried by one or two men. Amphorae are mainly used to highlight long-distance trade (pl. I). See Yon 1981, pp. 18-19; University of Southampton 2014.

3Applied (decoration)
(زخرفة) زخرفة مُضافة
zaḫrafa muḍāfa (zaḫrafa)
A moulded or modelled element fixed on to the surface of a ceramic forming a decoration in relief (pl. IV, no. 12). See Shepard 1956, p. 195; Balfet et al. 1989, pp. 137-140; Rice 1987, p. 148.

4Base
قاعدة
qāꜥida
The lower part of a ceramic, either formed in the continuity of the vessel or as an added element. A base can take various shapes or forms and, for example, be named a “foot” in the case of taller elements (pl.
II). See Yon 1981, p. 35; Balfet et al. 1989, p. 32.

5Basin
حوض
ḥawḍ
An open shape usually seen as a large bowl, the diameter of which exceeds 40cm (pl.
I). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 15.

6Beaker
كأس
ka’s
An open shape with a cylindrical or slightly flared body, the height of which is superior to the diameter, with or without a handle (pl.
I). See Yon 1981, p. 110; Balfet et al. 1989, p. 17.

7Body
البَدَن / الجسم
al-badan / al-jism

The main part of a ceramic figuring between the rim of the upper part and the base of the lower part. The body can adopt various shapes according to the type of ceramic (pl.
II). See Yon 1981, pp. 176-180.

8Bottle
قارورة
qārūra
A closed shape, without a handle, the height of which exceeds its diameter, bearing an elongated neck intended for pouring a liquid (pl.
I). See Yon 1981, pp. 42-43; Balfet et al. 1989, p. 8.

9Bowl
طاسة
ṭāsa
The generic term employed for an open shape which can be either slightly flared or convex the diameter of which is inferior to 40cm. A deep bowl refers to a bowl which height is superior to its diameter (pl.
I). See Yon 1981, pp. 39-40; Balfet et al. 1989, pp. 15-16.

10Brushing
التشطيب بالفرشاة

al-tašṭīb bil-furšā
A type of surface finishing obtained by using a rough tool (e.g. a cob corn) on the paste when it is at a leather-hard stage which aims to homogenise the surface and to remove any impurities (pl.
IV, no. 3). See Roux, Courty 2019, p. 94; Rice 1987, pp. 139-140.

11Burnishing
الصقل

aṣ-ṣaql
A type of surface treatment consisting in rubbing the surface with a hard tool so as to compact the upper layer of clay giving it a shiny effect. The term is sometimes distinguished from polishing according to the degree of drying or to the extent of the process but the gesture remains the same. Burnishing can leave some facets or alternating shiny and mat bands according to the orientation of the gestures (pl.
IV, no. 2). See Martineau 2010; Rye 1981, p. 90; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 96-98.

12Ceramic analysis
تحليل الفخار

taḥlīl al-fuḫār
The study of the composition and properties using laboratory techniques, according to standards derived from the natural sciences. Ceramic analyses provide information on provenance of raw materials (via chemical analysis, thin-section, scanning electron microscopy, etc.), the physical characteristics (e.g. vessel strength, porosity), or the functional properties (e.g. water permeability, thermal shock resistance. See Section
ii.4 and Tite et al. 2001.

13Chaîne opératoire
السلسلة العملية لإنتاج الفخار

al-silsila al-ꜥamalīa l-‘intāj al-fuḫār
In the case of ceramics, a
chaîne opératoire covers all operations from the collection of raw materials (clay, temper, fuel) to the firing of the pot, including all stages of paste preparation, shaping and finishing. See Section ii.5 and Roux, Courty 2019.

14Closed shape
شكل مغلق

šakl muġlaq
A shape bearing a rim or neck the diameter of which is inferior to that of the maximum diameter of the body. Amphorae, jars, flasks and jugs come within this category. The inner surface finishing is usually less elaborated than that of the exterior except in the case of waterproofing the pot. See Y
on 1981, p. 95; Balfet et al. 1989, p. 8.

15Coarse ware
الفخار الخشن

al-fuḫār al-ḫašin
A generic term generally ascribed to thick ceramics, carelessly executed, which function allows for a rough finishing.

16Coiling
التصنيع باللفائف الطينية

at-taṣnīꜥ bil-lafā’if al-ṭīniya
A roughing-out technique which consists in combining ceramic fragments of coil-shaped clay assembled by superimposed closed circles or in a spiral (pl.
III, no. 2). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 52; Rye 1981, pp. 67-69; Shepard 1956, pp. 57-59; Rice 1987, pp. 127-128.

17Combed (decoration)
ممشّط (زخرفة)
mumaššaṭ (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration technique involving the use of a combed tool (i.e. fish-bone, wooden or ceramic comb) the teeth of which create a hollow on the paste when impressed (pl.
IV, no. 8) or parallel lines when applied for incisions (pl. IV, no. 10). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 101; Rye 1981, p. 90.

18Common ware
الفخار العام (الفخار الشائع)

al-fuḫār al-ꜥām (al-fuḫār al-šā’iꜥ)
A generic term ascribed to multi-purpose ceramics that are neither fine nor coarse, generally undecorated, and which represent the majority of the ceramic production found in archaeological contexts.

19Craft specialization
التخصّص الحرفي
at-taḫaṣṣuṣ al-ḥirafī
A specific productive activity the nature (e.g. degree of standardisation) and intensity (e.g. volume produced) of which can be measured to define the organisation of the production. It is generally admitted that specialised craftsmen depend, at least partly, on their production for their livelihood while consumers depend on them for commodities they do not produce themselves. See C
ostin 1991; Di Paola 2013; Costin 2020.

20Cup
كوب
kūb
A bowl or goblet bearing a foot and which can have small handles (pl. I). See Yon 1981, p. 62.

21Decoration
زخرفة

zaḫrafa
The modification of the appearance of the surface of a ceramic by addition (e.g. painting, applied decoration) or removal (e.g. incision) of material, or deformation of the surface (e.g. stamping, impression) for esthetical or functional purposes (pl.
IV). See Yon 1981, p. 73; Rye 1981, pp. 89-95; Rice 1987, pp. 144-152; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 102-109.

22Fabric
نسيج العجينة

nasīj al-‛ajīna
An analytical grouping of the raw materials from which a vessel is formed, determined either by macroscopic attributes or by laboratory analyses; it consists of two primary components: the hardened clay—plastic groundmass—and the added non-plastic inclusions as temper. See Section
ii.3 and Daszkiewicz 2014.

23Fine ware
الفخار المُتقن (الفاخر، الناعم)

al-fuḫār al-mutqan (al-fāḫir, al-nā‛im)
The generic term ascribed to thin-walled ceramics devoted to service purposes which are finely executed.

24Finishing
التشطيب
at-tašṭīb
A rubbing operation that changes the appearance of the surface of the ceramic at the end of the shaping process before surface treatments and the decorative operation e.g. smoothing, brushing (pl.
IV). See Rice 1987, pp. 136-141; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 92-96.

25Firing
الشيّ (الحرق)

aš-šayy (al-ḥarq)

The process consisting in subjecting an object shaped using clay to a temperature high enough to obtain an irreversible transformation.
See Balfet et al. 1989, pp. 65-69; Rye 1981, pp. 96-122; Rice 1987, pp. 80-112; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 110-121.

26Firing atmosphere
وسط الشيّ (بيئة الشيّ، بيئة الحرق)
wasaṭ aš-šayy (bī’at al-šayy, bī’at al-ḥarq)
The term used to define the oxygen (oxidizing) and carbon (reducing) rate of the flow of air surrounding the ceramics during the firing and the cooling processes which have an influence on the colour and the hardness of the vessel. An oxidizing atmosphere will confer a reddish colour while a reducing atmosphere results in a darker and even black tint. See Rye 1981, p. 98; Rice 1987, p. 81; Orton et al. 1993, pp.133-135; Roux, Courty 2019, p. 111.

27Glaze
التزجيج
at-tazjīj
A surface treatment involving a vitrified transparent or opaque coating fused with the surface of the ceramic that can be coloured with oxides (pl.
IV, no. 6). See Rye 1981, p. 40; Rice 1987, p. 151; Roux, Courty 2019, p. 101.

28Grog
فخار مهشّم

fuḫār muhaššam
Particles of crushed pottery, intentionally added as temper to the groundmass to achieve a higher resistance against thermal shock. See R
ye 1981, p. 33; Tite et al. 2001.

29Grooved (decoration)
مخدّد
(مثلّم) (زخرفة)
muḫaddad (muṯallam) (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration implying the removal of paste in a linear movement to create a groove on the surface (pl.
IV, no. 14). It is sometimes seen as a type of incision. See Orton et al. 1993, p. 85; Roux, Courty 2019, p. 107.

30Handle
مقبض

maqbaḍ
A functional element fixed on to a ceramic enabling it to be used. A handle is described according to its shape and its section (pl.
II).

31Hand-made
مصنوع يدوياً

maṣnūꜥ yadawiyan
A term used to define a ceramic manufacturing technique performed without a turning device such as coiling, moulding, modelling, hammering (pl.
III). See Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 54-72; Rye 1981, p. 67.

32Hammering
التشكيل بالطَرق

at-taškīl bil-ṭarq
A roughing-out technique consisting in beating the clay mass with one’s fist or using a specific tool (hammer) to rough out its shape. The beating leaves some depressions on the inner surface of the ceramic (pl.
III, no. 4). See Roux, Courty 2019, p. 61; Huysecom 1994, pp. 32-35.

33Hardness
الصلابة

aṣ-ṣalāba
The analytical criterion used to evaluate the quality of the firing process that can be determined according to the ceramic’s resistance to scratching (Moh’s scale) using various tools. A simpler version defines a “soft” result when a ceramic can be scratched with a fingernail; “hard” when it is not possible to scratch the surface with a fingernail; “very hard” when even a knife cannot scratch the surface. See S
hepard 1956, pp. 113-117; Rice 1987, pp. 334-336; Orton et al. 1993, p. 233.

34Impressed (decoration)
مَطبوع (زخرفة)

maṭbu‛ (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration implying the pressure of a tool against the paste to design a motif. Various movements and tools have been highlighted that can precise the type of impression and its cultural link (pl.
IV, nos. 7-8). See Rye 1981, p. 92; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 104-10; CerAfIm; Caneva, Marks 1990.

35Incised (decoration)
محزّز (زخرفة)

muḥazzaz (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration resulting from the continuous application of a pointed tool to draw a pattern (pl.
IV, nos. 9-10). See Shepard 1956, pp. 195-203; Rye 1981, p. 90; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 107-108.

36Inclusions
الشوائب

aš-šawā’ib
Mineral or organic particles naturally present in the clay ground that are measured in terms of nature, frequency, size, sorting and roundness to describe the composition of raw material used to produce a ceramic. See O
rton et al. 1993, pp. 138-140.

37Jar
جرّة

jarra
The generic term used for containers of medium to large sizes, without handle, intended for storage or transporting a liquid or solid (pl.
I). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 19; Yon 1981, pp.128-129.

38Jug
إبريق

‛ibrīq
A closed shape of small to medium dimension with a handle, with or without a spout, intended for pouring liquid (pl.
I). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 19; Yon 1981, p. 65.

39Leather-hard paste
عجينة شبه جافة

‛ajīna šibh jāfa
The term “leather-hard paste” refers to a stage of drying of a paste that has lost moisture and is therefore no longer as plastic as it was at the time of shaping but still sufficient to allow deformation and removing of clay matter. See R
ye 1981, p. 146; Rice 1987, pp.63-67.

40Kneading
العَجن

al-‛ajn
The final operation of homogenisation of the non-plastic particles into the fine mass and reduction of porosity just before the shaping process. See R
oux, Courty 2019, p. 39.

41Manufacture
التصنيع (التشكيل)

at-taṣnī‛ (at-taškīl)
The process consisting in shaping a clay paste to produce a pot. See B
alfet et al. 1989, p. 52.

42Modelling
النَمذَجة (التشكيل اليدوي)

an-namzaja (at-taškīl al-yadawī)
A roughing-out technique consisting in shaping a mass of clay by discontinuous pressures with the fingers of one or both hands. This technique is also known as “pinching” (pl.
III, no. 1). See Rye 1981, p. 70; Shepard 1956, pp. 55-57; Rice 1987, p. 125; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 60-61.

43Moulding
الصبّ (التشكيل بالقالب)
aṣ-ṣabb (at-taškīl bil-qālab)
A roughing-out technique involving a convex or concave mould giving the shape to the clay pressed on it (pl.
III, no. 3). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 57; Shepard 1956, pp. 63-65; Rice 1987, pp. 125-126; Rye 1981, pp. 81-82; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 61-64.

44Moulded (decoration)
مُشكّل بالقالب (زخرفة)

mušakkal bil-qālab (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration resulting from the use of a mould to produce high-relief or negative designs on pottery (pl.
IV, no. 15). See Shepard 1956, p. 195.

45Organic residue analysis
تحليل المخلفات العضوية

taḥlīl al-muḫallafāt al-‛uḍwiya
The study of organic traces preserved as food crusts or spills on the surface or as micro-traces on the vessel wall; analytical techniques include chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to detect chemical compounds of animal fats, aquatic resources, plant oils and beeswax and stable carbon isotope analysis, e.g. to distinguish carcass fats from dairy fats. See Sections
v.4 and v.5; Barnard, Eerkens 2014.

46Open shape
أواني مفتوحة

awānī maftūḥa
A shape, the maximum diameter of which is located at the rim, such as plates, cups and goblets. See B
alfet et al. 1989, p. 8.

47Painted (decoration)
مَطلي (ملوّن) (زخرفة)

maṭlī (mulawwan) (zaḫrafa)
A type of decoration implying the application of colour (coloured clay, pigments or oxides) with a brush or fingers on the surface of a pot. Painting can occur before or after the firing (pl.
IV, no. 13). See Shepard 1956, p. 203; Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 102-103.

48Paste
العجينة

al-‛ajīna
The internal component of a ceramic mixing clay material and non-plastic inclusions. See Fabric.

49Petrofabric
وصف أو تصنيف العجينة بحسب محتواها

wasf ‛aw taṣnīf al-‛ajīna biḥasab muḥtawāhā
The analytical grouping of petrographically defined inclusions and clay appearance. See Section
ii.3 and Ownby, Brand 2019.

50Pinching
القرص بالإصبع

al-qarṣ bil-‛iṣba‛
See Modelling.

51Plate
طَبَق (صحن)

ṭabaq (saḥn)
An open shape with very flared walls devoted to serving and presenting food (pl.
I). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 10.

52Polishing
التلميع

al-talmī‛
A type of surface treatment consisting in the smoothing, using repeated rubbing of the surface of a pottery at the end of the drying process. In this manual, the term does not differ from the burnishing. See R
oux, Courty 2019, p. 96-98.

53Porosity
المسامية

al-masāmiya
The volume of space or pores within the walls which let liquids seep through the body (permeability). The degree of porosity has an influence on the density, the strength and the resistance to weathering or thermal shock. See S
hepard 1956, pp. 125-130; Rice 1987, p. 231.

54Pot
قِدر

qidr
A generic term used for a closed shape without any specific characteristics. See B
alfet et al. 1989, p. 19; Yon 1981, p. 196.

55Rim
فُوَّهة

fuwwaha
The upper edge of a ceramic corresponding to the mouth that can have various profiles (pl.
I). See Yon 1981, pp. 143-144.

56Refitting
تركيب القطع (ربط القطع)

tarkīb al-qiṭa‛ (rabṭ al-qiṭa‛)
The reconstruction of the profile of a ceramic from sherds joined together; also named “mending”. See V
erdan 2011.

57Scraping
الكشط

al-kašṭ
A fashioning operation consisting in thinning and profiling the walls of the ceramic by using a sharp tool (pl.
III, no. 7). Scraping is sometimes seen as shaving. See Roux, Courty 2019, p. 64; Rice 1987, p. 137.

58Shape
الشكل

aš-šakl
The morphological characteristics of a ceramic adapted to its function and following cultural trends used by a ceramic specialist as a tool for the classification purpose. See S
hepard 1956, pp. 224-248.

59Shaving
التشذيب

at-tašzīb
A fashioning operation consisting in removing excess clay using a cutting tool to thin the walls, unify the surface and design the final shape of the vessel (pl.
III, no. 8). See Roux, Courty 2019, p. 68.

60Sigillata
سيجيلاتا

sījīllātā
A term employed to designate fine red glossy ancient Roman pottery which influenced pottery production in all the Mediterranean countries.

61Slip
البِطانة

al-biṭāna
A type of coating made with liquefied clay eventually mixed with pigments applied by soaking the ceramic or by rubbing it on the surface of the ceramic (pl.
IV, no. 4). See Rye 1981, p. 41; Rice 1987, pp. 149-150.

62Smoothing
التمليس

at-tamlīs
A finishing operation consisting in unifying the surface when still wet by removing the last impurities with a soft tool or one’s hand (pl.
IV, no. 1). See Balfet et al. 1989, p. 77; Rice 1987, p. 138.

63Soot
آثار الحرق (السخام)

’āṯār al-ḥarq (al-suḫām)
Black carbonised residues usually found on the surface of ceramics used over fires such as cooking-pots. See R
ice 1987, p. 235.

64Spout
مِثعب

miṯ‛ ab
Part of a ceramic used for pouring a liquid out that could be fashioned by pinching the rim or by addition. See Y
on 1981, p. 36.

65Stamped (decoration)
مختوم (زخرفة)

maḫtūm (zaḫrafa)
A type of impressed decoration involving pressing a stamp on the leather-hard surface of a ceramic (pl.
IV, no. 11). See Shepard 1956, pp. 194-195.

66Surface treatment
المعالجة السطحية

al-mu ‛ālaja al-saṭḥiya
A finishing operation consisting in rubbing the surface to modify the final aspect of the ceramic such as burnishing or polishing. See O
rton et al. 1993, p. 126.

67Tableware
أواني المائدة

’awānī al-mā’ida
The generic term ascribed to ceramics, generally thin-walled and devoted to serving purposes.

68Temper
شوائب مُضافة

šawā’ib muḍāfa
The non-plastic element added to improve the malleability of a clay or to modify its properties such as its resistance to thermal shock, its porosity, etc. See R
ye 1981, p. 37; Rice 1987, pp. 406-413.

69Use-wear traces
آثار الاستخدام

’āṯār al-’istiḫdām
Abrasion and damage caused by use, interpreted for vessel functions and techniques, e.g. burn marks or soot point due to heating over a fire, surface abrasions caused by stirring or frequent handling, and surface attrition on the inner vessel walls which may stem from acid formation in fermentation processes. See R
ice 1987, pp. 232-236.

70Utility ware
الفخار الخَدمي

al-fuḫār al-ḫadamī
The generic term used for ceramics, the function of which is unequivocal such as bread plates or water pipes.

71Wash
طبقة طينية رقيقة (ماء الطين)

ṭabaqa ṭīniya raqīqa (ma’u aṭ-ṭīn)
A type of coating either seen as a more fluid layer than a slip applied before firing or a post-firing coating (pl.
IV, no. 5). See Rye 1981, p. 41; Rice 1987, p. 151.

72Wedging
العجن المتجانس

al-‛ajn al-mutajānis
The operation of amalgamating the non-plastic particles into the fine mass and reducing the porosity by fine kneading performed during the preparation of the paste and its storage. It is distinguished from kneading only in the case of a time-gap between wedging and shaping. See R
oux, Courty 2019, p. 39.

73Wheel-coiling
التصنيع باستخدام اللفائف الطينية على العجلة

at-taṣnī‛ bistiḫdām al-lafā’if al-ṭīniya ‛alā al-‛ajala
A roughing-out technique using the rotation of a turning device to shape coils of clay (pl.
III, no. 6). See Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 84-87.

74Wheel-made
مصنوع بواسطة العجلة

maṣnū‛ biwāsiṭat al-‛ajala
A term used to define a ceramic manufacturing technique using a turning device such a wheel or a turn-table. See R
oux, Courty 2019, pp. 72-90; Rye 1981, pp. 64-65.

75Wheel-throwing
تصنيع الفخار من كتلة طينية على العجلة

taṣnī‛ al-fuḫār min kutla ṭīniya ‛alā al-‛ajala
A roughing-out technique using the rotation of a turning device to shape a mass of clay with continuous pressure of hands and fingers (pl.
III, no. 5). See Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 72-83.

Plates

Plate I. Ceramic description: the main shapes and the main types of rim

Image 100000000000040600000582200DDCB8658E7C5B.jpg

After Adams 1986, fig. 95; Yon 1981, fig. 314.

Plate II. Ceramic description: the main types of body, handle and base

Image 10000000000004000000058299AB1DC55DD369B6.jpg

After Adams 1986, figs. 95-96; Yon 1981, fig. 188; University of Southampton 2014.

Plate III. Roughing-out techniques and their traces

Image 1000000000000445000004FC0687BDFA96C520B1.jpg

© E. Jadot, R. David; picture no. 3: Courtesy of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of the University of Warsaw, © E. Czyżewska-Zalewska/Pcma/Pots Project.

Plate IV. Surface finishing, surface treatment and decoration techniques

Image 100000000000027600000532381008B6BB96905E.jpg

© E. Jadot, R. David; picture no. 6: courtesy of Valentina Vezzoli; pictures no. 10 and 12: courtesy of EHAS project, Iraqi Kurdistan; picture no. 15: © Ifao.


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