II.6 Ethnoarchaeology and Experimental Archaeology
p. 46-52
Texte intégral
Introduction and Methods
1Ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology are considered as an aid in the interpretation of archaeological remains. The aim of ethnoarchaeology is to observe living societies and their behaviour in order to question and explain archaeological records (Binford 1981, p. 32) while experimental archaeology has been defined as “the fabrication of materials, behaviours, or both in order to observe one or more processes involved in the production, use, discard, deterioration, or recovery of material culture” (Skibo 1992, p. 18). Experimental archaeology leads to test hypothesis by reproducing archaeological objects and their process of manufacture using laboratory and actualistic methodologies. In practice, the chaîne opératoire approach includes aspects of ceramic production such as techniques, methods, tools, and social context (Roux 1994). In other words, ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology might yield insightful information on the material culture and on the behaviour of the societies which produced and used it.
Ethnoarchaeology and Experimental Archaeology in Practice
2Both ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology follow a dedicated research methodology and regard the interpretation of archaeological data as their primary goal. It is worth while noting that the use of both research techniques in archaeological investigation poses methodological problems and sets traps of which researchers should be aware. Concerning ceramic studies, these research tools are able to determine which aspects of ceramic production can be possibly reconstructed and how. Ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology complement each other therefore combined investigation would definitely be the most beneficial approach.
3Ethnoarchaeology is considered more a research approach than a theory or method and has a lot to offer for ceramic specialists. Here we are using ethnoarchaeological research carried out in Sudan as a representative sample.
4Fowler’s division of ethnoarchaeologists focused on pottery studies isolating two main approaches (Fowler 2017). The “positivist approach” basically contains everything that could be described as a technological aspect of ceramic production. The central role of the object to characterise the production system is emphasised. The major part of ethnoarchaeological research in Sudan, focusing on the analysis of contemporary pottery workshops, is included within this school of thought. One of the earliest studies of this type was conducted in Darfur, where the focus was mainly on the firing process and the preparation of ceramic mass (Tobert 1984). Subsequent research focused essentially on the recording of the chaîne opératoire within local pottery workshops in the Nile Valley.
5The second approach is qualified as “humanistic/symbolic”. This approach assumes that the creation of vessels is both a technological and social process, and simply questions “how society influences making things”. This school is mainly followed by researchers involved in projects implemented in West Africa. So far this approach has not been fully explored in Sudanese ethnoarchaeology, although more recent contributions have taken a small step in this direction by using ethnographic methods to record closed down pottery workshops in the Ad-Dabba region. Ethnographic interviews have proved that the social memory of former customers has given light to deserted places of pottery production.
6Focus on the technological aspects has been chosen as the starting point for more detailed research. Ethnographical investigations carried out in the village of Jabarūna (ca. 30km upstream from Ad-Dabba) by the authors are turning to a “humanistic/symbolic approach”. Observation of the pottery production chaîne opératoire (figs. 16-19) aided in the interpretation of the Funj period ceramics found in Old Dongola. Research is mainly focused on the problems of apprenticeships in a potter’s society and abandonment of objects in deserted areas such as the Abandoned Village in Old Dongola (fig. 20). Full understanding of the local chaîne opératoire will enable the identification of the social dimension of the contemporary pottery production (Mayor 2010).
Figure 16 Pottery workshop in Jabarūna village with a detailed view of the potter’s equipment (top, middle) and a quern with stone pestle for preparing grog (bottom)

Photos by B. Franczyk.
Figure 17 Selected stages of the shaping process: preparing the base of a water jar azyār (top) and scraping and smoothing the external surface of the vessel with a plastic scraper (bottom)

Photos by B. Franczyk (top) and K. Danys (bottom).
Figure 18 Process of drying in the courtyard of the potter’s house (top) and vessels with a yellow burnishing surface ready for firing (bottom)

Photos by K. Danys (top) and B. Franczyk (bottom).
Figure 19 Pottery kilns in Jabarūna village in the form of a pit with metal shreds and plates at the top as isolation to protect vessels from the flames and different stages of the firing preparation

Photos by B. Franczyk
Figure 20. Storage vessels (top), pigeon vessels made of cooking pots placed in the wall of the house (middle) in the Abandoned Village in Dongola called Hilla Dongola and a ceramic bowl by a Muslim grave in Old Dongola (bottom) placed as a bird feeder according to informants

Photos by K. Danys (top) and B. Franczyk (middle and bottom)
7The main goal of experimental archaeology in ceramic studies is to reconstruct the various phases of the chaîne opératoire using single-segment experiments (concerning, for instance, raw materials: their resources, collecting strategy and fabric preparation) or combined segment experiments where all actions related to the ceramic production are included. Research of the properties of ceramic vessels and their use could also be one of the aims of experimental archaeology. A single-segment experiment was applied in research relating to forming techniques in order to test the hypothesis whether the relative density of sherds correlates with the technique used to form the vessel. During the experiment, vessels were formed using different techniques and pores in the ceramic paste were analysed using laboratory methods. The structure and texture of the paste were correlated with the forming technique, and the obtained results were compared with data derived from laboratory analysis of ancient pottery. The ability to reconstruct shaping techniques can therefore be considered an achievement subsequent to the implementation of experimental archaeology. A single-segment experiment on the impressions of mats on vessels was conducted on material from the Fourth Cataract (Phillips 2010) and on the Funj pottery in Old Dongola (fig. 21). Silicone castings made from the surfaces of pots were compared with remains of mats and basketry found in contemporary archaeological material. Clearly, the applied method needed improvement, as some of the impressions were too shallow to leave traces in the silicone paste. While research of the sources of the impressions is still on-going, one action of the chaîne opératoire has been tested using an experiment, investigating other archaeological resources, and comparing them in order to reconstruct one of the aspects of the Funj pottery production. A combined-segment experiment of the firing technology of Meroitic pottery consisted of a multi-levelled process which encompassed resourcing and preparation of clay, shaping of the vessels and firing. Laboratory analysis of the experimental pottery was carried out and the results aid to reconstruct the actions of the chaîne opératoire in the case of Meroitic pottery (Daszkiewicz, Wetendorf 2017).
Figure 21. Process of silicone casting of the surface with corncob impression (top left and right), and silicone cast (bottom left) with an impressed decoration on the surface of a vessel

Photos by B. Franczyk.
Discussion
8Although ethnoarchaeological sources are useful in the reconstruction of past human activities, researchers should be aware of possible misinterpretations of so-called cautionary tales. Conclusions based on investigation of ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology should be careful of misuse of the analogy, which is the most common research tool in archaeological interpretation. Obviously, the idea that local communities are the most suitable for ethnoarchaeological reasoning is far too optimistic (London 2000, p. 3). Nevertheless, the application of a “direct historical approach” in investigating ancient pottery techniques and their social dimension can provide further information that has been lost between the living society and the archaeological context (Stahl 1993, pp. 242-243).
9Ethnographic research carried out in Old Dongola allowed the use of acquired data as analogy for 17th-18th century pottery from the Funj settlement on the site. Members of the local community share the same environment with their predecessors who used to occupy the area under archaeological investigation. The short time span separating archaeological and ethnographic data enabled the use of the latter as analogy in the research. The application of ethnoarchaeology in places with on-going archaeological activity should be included along with a program of community engagement. Collaboration between researchers implementing ethnographic studies and members of local community should be beneficial to both groups.
Auteurs
PhD, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Poland.
PhD student, Doctoral School of Humanities, Faculty of Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Poland.

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