II.5 The Concept of “Chaîne Opératoire”
p. 40-46
Texte intégral
A Theoretical Framework from the Anthropology of the Techniques
1The concept of chaîne opératoire, theorised by French anthropologists (A. Leroi-Gourhan first, then R. Creswell and others), considers the manufacturing process as an organised sequence of technical gestures that transform a raw material into a usable product. Thus the technological analysis of ceramics involves the reconstruction of all the stages of the process of fabrication of the vessels, from the supply of raw materials to the finished product, passing through the stages of preparation of the paste, manufacturing, finishing, surface treatment, decorating and firing (Shepard 1956; Rye 1981; Binder, Courtin 1994; Livingstone Smith et al. 2005; Roux, Courty 2019). Ethnographic and archaeological studies have shown that the same shape or the same type of decoration can be made with the use of different techniques, which indicates several producers (Gosselain 2002). For the potter, the choice of one technique rather than another is related to a cultural heritage and to his identity, that can be ethnic, ethno-linguistic, religious, family, socio-professional, etc. (see among others: Binder, Courtin 1994; Gosselain 2002; Livingstone Smith et al. 2005). Manufacturing techniques involve specialised gestures that are more stable than finishing and decoration techniques—although they are not always visible in the finished products—, so they have a great identity meaning (Gosselain 2002). The technological analysis enables the demonstration of the artisans’ skills and the tools used. In recognising gestures and actions on the paste, the study restores all the stages of the production and thereby this anthropological approach of the ceramic reaches the socio-cultural dimension of this activity. Thus, the chaînes opératoires allow to differentiate social groups and to characterise the socio-economic organisation of the production, which can then be related to the socio-cultural history of the human groups.
The Technological Analysis of the Ceramics from Muweis (Sudan)
2In the Island of Meroe (Sudan), the excavation of the site of Muweis conducted by M. Millet (Louvre Museum) has uncovered large amounts of ceramics. This city—with various temples, a palace, a residential area, and craft zones—intensively occupied throughout the Meroitic (ca. 270 bc-340 ad) and post-Meroitic (ca. 340-550 ad) periods remained so until the modern period (Baud 2008; David, Evina 2016). One of the objectives of the ceramic study is to understand the technical variability of the pottery production to approach the socio-cultural diversity of the populations of Muweis. The assemblage has been recently analysed by R. David and E. Jadot according to the concept of chaîne opératoire; a synthesis of the results is presented below.
Methodology
3According to the methodology of V. Roux and M.-A. Courty (Roux, Courty 2019), the technological analysis of a ceramic corpus focuses on three successive studies for the sorting, the description, and the exploitation of data: 1) the examination of technical entities (features of manufacturing, finishing and surface treatments) and their variants called technical groups; 2) the petrographic analysis to determine the origin of raw materials, the preparation of the paste and the type of firing; and 3) the morpho-stylistic study (fig. 13). Consequently, it is possible to evaluate the range of shapes obtained according to the different chaînes opératoires identified and thereby evaluate whether the variability is linked to functional or cultural factors.
Figure 13. Stages of the technological analysis of a ceramic assemblage according to the concept of chaîne opératoire

Adapted from Roux, Courty 2019, fig. 4.1.
Sorting and Reconstituting the Technical Groups
4The identification of manufacturing techniques is possible through the observation of the diagnostic surface features present on the inner and the outer walls of the pots as well as in section (see notably Roux, Courty 2019). The macro-traces describe the topography (morphology of walls, micro-relief), the surfaces (striations, grooves, rills, texture, appearance and coating) and the type of fractures (orientation and shape) of the sherds (fig. 14).
Figure 14. Examples of manufacturing techniques using coils observed on the inner wall of ceramics of Muweis

a) Coiling: parallel rills and horizontal grooves due to joints between coils, undulation of the surface.
b) Coiling and wheel-shaping: coils joined and thinned through rotation on a wheel (and parallel striations of smoothing made on wet paste with rotation on a wheel).
5Within the ceramic assemblage of Muweis, the identification of the manufacturing techniques and methods used distinguishes 6 main technical entities: 1) combination of coiling and wheel-shaping techniques (coils are formed by discontinuous pressures and then are joined and thinned to fashion the body with the use of the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel; see Roux, Courty 2019, pp. 84-87); 2) wheel-throwing; 3) coiling; 4) combination of hammering (for the body) and coiling (for the neck); 5) moulding; and 6) modelling. The varieties of finishing techniques and surface treatments constitute 14 technical groups distinguished by the application or not of a slip and by an operation of burnishing or not after smoothing (fig. 15).
Figure 15. Technological tree of the ceramic of Muweis

Studying the Paste Preparation
6This second stage differentiates the petrographic groups within each technical group already defined. The petrographic classification considers the matrix (petrofabric, texture, colour and mineralogy), the inclusions (type, form, size, and quantity), and the porosity (see Section ii.3; Shepard 1956; Rye 1981). Thereby we can determine the origin of raw materials and provide data on the scale of production. Furthermore, the petrographic characterisation gives not only indications relating to the choice of raw materials depending on their properties and the environment, but also the technical preparation for transforming them into suitable clay such as removing coarse elements, sieving, decanting, adding temper, wedging, kneading, etc. The techno-petrographic groups correspond to the production units and reflect the diversity of the artisan groups, so the variations help to understand the organisation of production (Roux, Courty 2019).
Technological description form

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7In Muweis, there is a great variability in the raw materials used and in the preparation of the pastes. A majority is made with Nile clay (fine to coarse), with vegetal or mineral tempers. Some over fired samples found in the craft area of the city suggest a local production for some of the ceramics uncovered. It is interesting to point out that these ceramics locally made with alluvial clay are linked to various manufacturing techniques, indicating distinct craft groups producing according to different technical traditions, thus revealing distinct cultural lineage of transmission within the same area. Nevertheless, nowadays these types of alluvial clays still appear similar all along the Nile Valley and it is therefore still impossible to locate the sources. In such case, the analysis of the manufacturing techniques is especially important to complete the study and to emphasise data on the variability of the production groups. Other clays are present in smaller quantities: “gratinitic” clay, white kaolinitic clay (very fine or fine, with fine vegetal temper) and orange clay (fine, from the wadis). Petrographic and chemical analyses are still on-going to characterise, in more detail, the preparation of the paste.
Linking Chaînes Opératoires with Shape and Decoration of the Vessels
8Finally, the techno-petrographic groups are related to the shape of the pots and to their iconography. Technological studies propose to further analyse the ceramics beyond their aesthetic classification and to delve into the decorative techniques: identification of the raw material used for the decoration, degree of drying of the paste during these operations, method used, type of tool and its mode of use (see, in particular, the website of the Working Group on African Impressed Ceramics “CerAfIm”). In addition, the structure and the organisation of the motifs are studied to understand the “decorative language” according to the structural approach (Shepard 1956). These techno-morpho-stylistic groups emphasise the type of vessels (shape and function) produced according to the different technical processes, thus allowing to interpret technical variability as the manifestation of several functional categories of vessels or as the expression of social factors corresponding to human groups (Roux, Courty 2019).
9In Muweis, only the cases of moulding and modelling techniques are associated with one type of clay material and one unique functional category, so they depend on the function of the potteries. In other parts, most of the other chaînes opératoires include various categories of pots (fig. 15): the technical variability is not correlated with the function of the vessels but can be explained by the presence of several cultural traditions and social boundaries.
Socio-cultural Interpretation of the Chaînes Opératoires
10Technological data can be interpreted from various levels relative to the contexts of discovery in archaeological sites (spatial and temporal distribution), and according to the scientific problematic. On a synchronic axis, similar pottery techniques can indicate an identical apprenticeship network that can be interpreted as groups with a common cultural affiliation, while differences would correspond to different communities (Roux, Courty 2019). In diachrony, technical changes reflect socio-cultural transformations and then authorise to characterise technical evolution as an endogenous or exogenous process. Thus, the technological analysis leads to interpretations of chronological, economic, and socio-cultural order.
11In the example of Muweis, the large technical variability observed in synchrony (6 technical entities for manufacturing, for a total of 14 technical groups: fig. 15) indicates that this site brought several social groups together. This would suggest that this city gathered populations from different regions of Sudan. The discovery of ceramic workshops in Muweis indisputably proves the craft specialisation—meaning that it exceeds the personal need of the potters—of a part of the production at least. Today, the question of the status of these artisans (independent or attached) remains unanswered; as does the context of manufacture of the hand-made ceramics (coiling, hammering/coiling, moulding, modelling), the production rates and the functions of the vessels differing from the wheel-made ones. The study is still in progress concerning the understanding of the organisation of the production and to connect its evolution to the history of the population of Muweis.
12Hence, the chaîne opératoire concept does not only lead to determine the techniques of fabrication of a finished product but — as the expression of identity choices from the potters — is the starting point to historical and socio-cultural interpretations.
Auteur
Associated researcher, CNRS UMR 8096 Archéologie des Amériques, Nanterre, France.

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