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    Plan détaillé Texte intégral 1 Introduction 2 Related Work 3 Application Scenario 3.1 Focused Problem Description 3.2 Data Description 4 Our Neural Network Approach 5 Experiments 6 Conclusions Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteurs

    Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-it 2017

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    Neural Sentiment Analysis for a Real-World Application

    Daniele Bonadiman, Giuseppe Castellucci, Andrea Favalli, Raniero Romagnoli et Alessandro Moschitti

    p. 42-47

    Résumés

    In this paper, we describe our neural network models for a commercial application on sentiment analysis. Different from academic work, which is oriented towards complex networks for achieving a marginal improvement, real scenarios require flexible and efficient neural models. The possibility to use the same models on different domains and languages plays an important role in the selection of the most appropriate architecture. We found that a small modification of the state-of-the-art network according to academic benchmarks led to a flexible neural model that also preserves high accuracy.

    In questo lavoro, descriviamo i nostri modelli di reti neurali per un’applicazione commerciale basata sul sentiment analysis. A differenza del mondo accademico, dove la ricerca è orientata verso reti anche complesse per il raggiungimento di un miglioramento marginale, gli scenari di utilizzo reali richiedono modelli neurali flessibili, efficienti e semplici. La possibilitá di utilizzare gli stessi modelli per domini e linguaggi variegati svolge un ruolo importante nella scelta dell’architettura. Abbiamo scoperto che una piccola modifica della rete allo stato dell’arte rispetto ai benchmarks accademici produce un modello neurale flessibile che preserva anche un’elevata precisione.

    Texte intégral 1 Introduction 2 Related Work 3 Application Scenario 3.1 Focused Problem Description 3.2 Data Description 4 Our Neural Network Approach 5 Experiments 5.1 Setup 5.2 Results on English Data 5.3 Results on Italian Data 5.4 Discussion of the Results 6 Conclusions Bibliographie Notes de bas de page Auteurs

    Texte intégral

    1 Introduction

    1In recent years, Sentiment Analysis (SA) in Twitter has been widely studied. Its popularity has been fed by the remarkable interest of the industrial world on this topic as well as the relatively easy access to data, which, among other, allowed the academic world to promote evaluation campaigns, e.g., (Nakov et al., 2016), for different languages. Many models have been developed and tested on these benchmarks, e.g., (Li et al., 2010; Kiritchenko et al., 2014; Severyn and Moschitti, 2015; Castellucci et al., 2016). They all appear very appealing from an industrial perspective, as SA is strongly connected to many types of business through specific KPIs1. However, previous academic work has not provided clear indications on how to select the most appropriate learning architecture for industrial applications.

    2In this paper, we report on our experience on adopting academic models of SA to a commercial application. This is a social media and micro-blogging monitoring platform to analyze brand reputation, competition, the voice of the customer and customer experience. More in detail, sentiment analysis algorithms register customers’ opinions and feedbacks on services and products, both direct and indirect.

    3An important aspect is that such clients push for easily adaptable and reliable solutions. Indeed, multi-tenant applications and sentiment analysis requirements cause a high variability of the approaches to the tasks within the same platform. This should be capable of managing multi-domain and multi-channel content in different languages as it provides services for several clients in different market segments. Moreover, scalability and lightweight use of computational resources preserving accuracy is also an important aspect. Finally, dealing with different client domains and data potentially requires constantly training new models with limited time availability.

    4To meet the above requirements we started from the state-of-the-art model proposed in (Severyn and Moschitti, 2015), which is a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) with few layers mainly devoted to encoding a sentence representation. We modified it by adopting a recurrent pooling layer, which allows the network to learn longer dependencies in the input sentence. An additional benefit is that such simple architecture makes the network more robust to biases from the dataset, generalizing better on the less represented classes. Our experiments on the SemEval data in English as well as on a commercial dataset in Italian show a constant improvement of our networks over the state of the art.

    5In the following, Section 2 places the current work in the literature. Section 3 introduces the application scenario. Sections 4 and 5 presents respectively our proposal for a flexible architecture and the experimental results. Finally, Section 6 reports the conclusions.

    2 Related Work

    6Although sentiment analysis has been around for one decade, a clear and exact comparison of models has been achieved thanks to the organization of international evaluation campaigns. The main campaign for SA in Twitter in English is SemEval, which has been organized since 2013. A similar campaign in the Italian language (SENTIPOLC) (Barbieri et al., 2016) is promoted within Evalita since 2014.

    7Among other approaches, Neural Networks (NNs), and in particular CNNs, outperformed the previous state of the art techniques (Severyn and Moschitti, 2015; Castellucci et al., 2016; Attardi et al., 2016; Deriu et al., 2016). Those systems share some architectural choices: (i) use of Convolutional Sentence encoders (Kim, 2014), (ii) leveraging pre-trained word2vec embeddings (Mikolov et al., 2013) and (iii) use of distant supervision to pre-train the network (Go et al., 2009). Despite this network is simple and provides state of the art results, it does not model long-term dependencies in the tweet by construction.

    3 Application Scenario

    8Our commercial application is a social media and micro-blogging monitoring platform, which is used to analyze brand reputation, competitors, the voice of the customer and customer experience. It is capable of managing multi-domain and multichannel content in different languages and it is provided as a service for several clients on different market segments.

    9The application uses an SA algorithm to analyze the customers’ opinions and feedbacks on services and products, both direct and indirect. The sentiment metric is used by the application clients to point out customer experience, expectations, and perception. The final aim is to promptly react and identify improvement opportunities and, afterward, measure the impact of the adopted initiatives.

    3.1 Focused Problem Description

    10Industrial applications, used by demanding clients, and dealing with real data tend to prefer easily adaptable and reliable solutions. Major problems are related to multi-tenant applications with several client requirements on the sentiment analysis problem, often requiring variations on task approaches within the same platform. Moreover, high attention is put on scalability and lightweight use of computational resources, preserving accurate performance. Finally, dealing with different client domains and data potentially requires constantly training new models with limited time availability.

    3.2 Data Description

    11The commercial social media and micro-blogging monitoring platform continuously acquires data coming from several sources; among these, we selected Twitter data as the main source for our purposes.

    12First, the public Twitter stream was collected for several months without specific domain restriction to build the dataset used for the word embedding training. The total amount of tweets used accounts for 100 million Italian tweets and 50 million English tweets.

    13Then, a dataset has been constructed from a specific market sector in Italian. The data collection was performed on the public Twitter stream with specific word restriction performed in order to filter the tweets of interest on the automotive domain. Afterward, the commercial platform applies different techniques in order to exclude from these collections the tweets that are not relevant for the specific insight analysis.

    14The messages were then used to construct the dataset for our experiments. A manual annotation phase has been performed together with the demanding client in order to best suit the insight objective requirement. Even though structured guidelines were agreed upon before creating the dataset and continuously checked against, this approach tended to generate dataset characteristics: in particular, unbalanced distribution of the examples over the different classes has been measured. It makes necessary a flexible model capable of handling such phenomena without the need of costly tuning phases and/or network reengineering.

    4 Our Neural Network Approach

    15The task of SA in Twitter aims at classifying a tweet Image 100000000000003F0000000D51D15EB1.jpg into one of the three sentiment classes Image 100000000000004A0000000F879D46AC.jpg, where C = {positive, neutral, negative}. This can be achieved by learning function Image 100000000000004E000000119DBB4068.jpg through a neural network. The architecture here proposed is based on (Severyn and Moschitti, 2015) and it is structured in three steps: (i) a tweet is encoded into an embedding matrix, (ii) an encoder maps the tweet matrix into a fixed size vector and (iii) a single output layer (a logistic regression layer) classifies this vector over the three classes.

    16In contrast to Severyn and Moschitti (2015), we adopted a Recurrent Pooling layer that allows the network to learn longer dependencies in the input sentence (i.e. sentiment shifts). This architectural change makes the network less sensible to learn biases from the dataset and therefore generalize better on poorly represented classes.

     

    17Embedding: a tweet t is represented as a sequence of words Image 1000000000000080000000121B2C24E4.jpg. Tweets are encoded into a sentence matrix Image 100000000000005C000000126898A8D9.jpg, obtained by concatenating its word vectors wj, where d is the size of the word embeddings.

     

    18Sentence Encoder: it is a function that maps the sentence matrix t into a fixed size vector x representing the whole sentence. Severyn and Moschitti (2015) used a convolutional layer followed by a global max-pooling layer to encode tweets. The convolution operation applies a sliding window operation (with window of size m) over the input sentence matrix. More specifically, it applies a non-linear transformation generating an output matrix Image 100000000000006900000011A0DA2355.jpg where Image 10000000000000230000000E2E4F3021.jpg is the number of convolutional filters and N is the length of the sentence. The max-pooling operation applies an element-wise max operation to the transformed sentence matrix Image 10000000000000080000000CE6DADC16.jpg, resulting in a fixed size vector representing the whole sentence.

    19In this work, we propose to substitute the maxpooling operation with a Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (BiGRU) (Chung et al., 2014; Schuster and Paliwal, 1997). The GRU is a Gated Recurrent Neural Network capturing long term dependencies over the input. A GRU processes the input in a direction (e.g., from left to right), updating a hidden state that keeps the memory of what the network has processed so far. In this way, a whole sentence can be represented by taking the hidden state at the last step. In order to capture dependencies in both directions, i.e., a stronger representation of the sentence, we apply a BiGRU, which performs a GRU operation in both the directions Image 10000000000000F1000000183092CD8B.jpg.

    20Classification: the final module of the network is the output layer (a logistic regression) that performs a linear transformation over the sentence vector by mapping it in a Image 10000000000000260000000EC2E8CFE2.jpg dimensional vector followed by a softmax activation, where Image 10000000000000260000000EC2E8CFE2.jpg is the number of classes.

    5 Experiments

    5.1 Setup

    21Similarly to Severyn and Moschitti (2015), for the CNN, we use a convolutional operation of size 5 and Image 10000000000000230000000E2E4F3021.jpg = 128 with rectified linear unit activation, ReLU. For the BiGRU, we use 150 hidden units for both Image 10000000000000290000001345C837A2.jpg and Image 10000000000000270000001339F54400.jpg obtaining a fixed size vector of size 300.

    22Word embeddings: for all the proposed models, we pre-initialize the word embedding matrices with the standard skip-gram embedding of dimensionality 50 trained on tweets retrieved from the Twitter Stream.

    23Training: the network is trained using SGD with shuffled mini-batches using the Adam update rule (Kingma and Ba, 2014) and an early stopping (Prechelt, 1998) strategy with patience p = 10. Early stopping allows avoiding overfitting and to improve the generalization capabilities of the network. Then, we opted for adding dropout (Srivastava et al., 2014) with rates of 0.2 to improve generalization and avoid co-adaptation of features (Srivastava et al., 2014).

    24Datasets: we trained and evaluated our architecture on two datasets: the English dataset of Semeval 2015 (Rosenthal et al., 2015) described by Table 1 in terms of the size of the data splits and positive, negative and neutral instances. We used the validation set for parameter tuning and to apply early stopping whereas the systems are evaluated on the two test sets of 2013 and 2015, respectively.

    Table 1: Splits of the Semeval dataset

    pos.

    neu.

    neg.

    total

    train

    5,895

    471

    3,131

    9,497

    valid

    648

    57

    430

    1,135

    test 2013

    2,734

    160

    1,541

    4,435

    test 2015

    1,899

    190

    1,008

    3,097

    Table 2: Splits of the Italian dataset

    pos

    neu

    neg

    total

    train

    4,234

    6,434

    2,170

    12,838

    valid

    386

    580

    461

    1,427

    test

    185

    232

    83

    500

    Table 3: English results on the SemEval dataset

    2013 test

    2015 test

    F1

    F1p,n

    F1

    F1p,n

    S&M (2015)

    —

    72.79

    —

    64.59

    CNN+Max

    72.04

    67.71

    67.14

    62.63

    CNN+BiGRU

    71.67

    68.10

    68.03

    63.82

    Table 4: Italian results on the automotive dataset

    Valid

    Test

    F1

    F1p,n

    F1

    F1p,n

    CNN+Max

    65.34

    62.35

    69.35

    62.88

    CNN+BiGRU

    64.85

    67.71

    68.32

    67.55

    25The Italian dataset was built in-house for the automotive domain: we collected from the Twitter stream as explained in Section 3.2 and divided it into three different splits for training, validation and testing, respectively. Table 2 shows the size of the splits. Due to the nature of the domain, many tweets in the dataset are neutral or objective, this makes the label distribution much different from the usual benchmarks. For example, the neutral class is the least represented in the English dataset (see Table 1) and the most represented in the Italian data. The imbalance can potentially bias neural networks towards the most represented class. One of the features our approach is to diminish such effect.

    26Evaluation metrics: we used the following evaluation metrics, Macro-F1 (the average of the F1 over the three sentiment categories). Additionally, we report the F1p,n, which is the average F1 of the positive and negative class. This metric is the official evaluation score of the SemEval competition.

    5.2 Results on English Data

    27Table 3 presents the results on the English dataset of SemEval 2015. The first row shows the outcome reported by Severyn and Moschitti (2015) (S&M). CNN+Max is a reimplementation of the above system with Convolution and Max-Pooling but trained just on the official training data without distant supervision. This system is used as a strong baseline in all our experiments. Lastly, we report the results obtained with the BiGRU pooling strategy described in Section 4. The proposed architecture presents a slight improvement over the strong baseline (~1 point of both F1 and F1p,n score on the test).

    5.3 Results on Italian Data

    28Table 4 presents the result on the Italian dataset. Despite that on this dataset the proposed CNN+BiGRU model obtains lower F1 scores, it shows improved performance in terms of F1p,n (5 points on both validation and test sets). This suggests that the proposed model tends to generalize better on the less represented classes, which, in the case of the Italian training dataset, are the positive and negative classes (as pointed out in Table 2).

    5.4 Discussion of the Results

    29We analyzed the classification scores of some words to show that our approach is less affected by the skewed distribution of the dataset. The sentiment trends, as captured by the neural network in terms of scores, are shown in Table 5.4). For example, the word Mexico classified by CNN+Max produces the scores, 0.06, 0.35, 0.57, while CNN+BiGRU outcome, 0.18, 0.52, 0.30, for the negative, neutral and positive classes, respectively. This shows that CNN+BiGRU is less biased by the data distribution of the sampled word in the dataset, which is, 0, 1, 5, i.e., Mexico appears 5 times more in positive than in neutral messages and never in negative messages.

    30This skewed distribution biased more CNN+Max as the positive class gets 0.57 while the negative one only 0.06. CNN+BiGRU is able, instead, to recover the correct neutral class. We believe that CNN+Max is more influenced by the distribution bias as the max pooling operation seems to capture very local phenomena. In contrast, BiGRU exploits the entire word sequence and thus can better capture larger informative context.

    Table 5: Word classification scores obtained with the two neural architectures on English language. The scores refer to the negative, neutral and positive classes, respectively.

    Cnn+Max

    Cnn+BiGRU

    Mexico

    (.06, .35, .57)

    (.18, .51, .30)

    Italy

    (.06, .54, .38)

    (.18, .54, .26)

    nice

    (.007, .009, .98)

    (.05, .07, .87)

    31A similar analysis in Italian shows the same trends. For example, the word panda is classified as, 0.05, 0.28, 0.66, by CNN+Max and 0.07, 0.56, 0.35 by CNN+BiGRU, for negative, neutral and positive classes, respectively. Again, the distribution in the Italian training set of this word is very skewed towards the positive class: it confirms that CNN+Max is more influenced by the distribution bias, while our architecture can better deal with it.

    6 Conclusions

    32In this paper, we have studied state-of-the-art neural networks for the Sentiment Analysis of Twitter text associated with a real application scenario. We modified the network architecture by applying a recurrent pooling layer enabling the learning of longer dependencies between words in tweets. The recurrent pooling layer makes the network more robust to unbalanced data distribution. We have tested our models on the academic benchmark and most importantly on our data derived from a real-world commercial application. The results show that our approach works well for both English and Italian languages. Finally, we observed that our network suffers less from the dataset distribution bias.

    Bibliographie

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    Francesco Barbieri, Valerio Basile, Danilo Croce, Malvina Nissim, Nicole Novielli, and Viviana Patti. 2016. Overview of the evalita 2016 sentiment polarity classification task. In Proceedings of Third Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLiC-it 2016) & Fifth Evaluation Campaign of Natural Language Processing and Speech Tools for Italian. Final Workshop (EVALITA 2016).

    Giuseppe Castellucci, Danilo Croce, and Roberto Basili. 2016. Context-aware convolutional neural networks for twitter sentiment analysis in italian. In Proceedings of Third Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLiC-it 2016) & Fifth Evaluation Campaign of Natural Language Processing and Speech Tools for Italian. Final Workshop (EVALITA 2016), Napoli, Italy, December 5-7, 2016. CEUR-WS.org.

    Junyoung Chung, Caglar Gulcehre, KyungHyun Cho, and Yoshua Bengio. 2014. Empirical evaluation of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modeling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.3555.

    Jan Deriu, Maurice Gonzenbach, Fatih Uzdilli, Aurelien Lucchi, Valeria De Luca, and Martin Jaggi. 2016. Swisscheese at semeval-2016 task 4: Sentiment classification using an ensemble of convolutional neural networks with distant supervision. In SemEval@ NAACL-HLT, pages 1124–1128.

    Alec Go, Richa Bhayani, and Lei Huang. 2009. Twitter sentiment classification using distant supervision.

    Yoon Kim. 2014. Convolutional neural networks for sentence classification. In Alessandro Moschitti, Bo Pang, and Walter Daelemans, editors, Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2014, October 25-29, 2014, Doha, Qatar, A meeting of SIGDAT, a Special Interest Group of the ACL, pages 1746–1751. ACL.

    Diederik Kingma and Jimmy Ba. 2014. Adam: A method for stochastic optimization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980.

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    Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg S Corrado, and Jeff Dean. 2013. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Advances in neural information processing systems, pages 3111–3119.

    Preslav Nakov, Alan Ritter, Sara Rosenthal, Fabrizio Sebastiani, and Veselin Stoyanov. 2016. Semeval2016 task 4: Sentiment analysis in twitter. In SemEval@ NAACL-HLT, pages 1–18.

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    Sara Rosenthal, Preslav Nakov, Svetlana Kiritchenko, Saif Mohammad, Alan Ritter, and Veselin Stoyanov. 2015. Semeval-2015 task 10: Sentiment analysis in twitter. In Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval 2015), pages 451–463, Denver, Colorado, June. Association for Computational Linguistics.

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    Notes de bas de page

    1 Key Performance Indicators are strategic factors enabling the performance measurement of a process or activity.

    Auteurs

    Daniele Bonadiman

    Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, University of Trento, Italy – d.bonadiman@unitn.it

    Giuseppe Castellucci

    Almawave Srl., Italy – g.castellucci@almawave.it

    Andrea Favalli

    Almawave Srl., Italy – a.favalli@almawave.it

    Raniero Romagnoli

    Almawave Srl., Italy – r.romagnoli@almawave.it

    Alessandro Moschitti

    Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, University of Trento, Italy – Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, University of Trento, Italy – amoschitti@gmail.com

     

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    • Research on medical named entity recognition based on DB-MA-BiLSTM-CRF(2022) . DOI: 10.1117/12.2640767

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    • Singh, Shailendra Kumar. Sachan, Manoj Kumar. (2022) Research Anthology on Implementing Sentiment Analysis Across Multiple Disciplines. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-6684-6303-1.ch033

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    Bonadiman, D., Castellucci, G., Favalli, A., Romagnoli, R., & Moschitti, A. (2017). Neural Sentiment Analysis for a Real-World Application. In R. Basili, M. Nissim, & G. Satta (éds.), Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-it 2017 (1‑). Accademia University Press. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2357
    Bonadiman, Daniele, Giuseppe Castellucci, Andrea Favalli, Raniero Romagnoli, et Alessandro Moschitti. « Neural Sentiment Analysis for a Real-World Application ». In Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-It 2017, édité par Roberto Basili, Malvina Nissim, et Giorgio Satta. Torino: Accademia University Press, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2357.
    Bonadiman, Daniele, et al. « Neural Sentiment Analysis for a Real-World Application ». Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-It 2017, édité par Roberto Basili et al., Accademia University Press, 2017, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2357.

    Référence numérique du livre

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    Basili, R., Nissim, M., & Satta, G. (éds.). (2017). Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-it 2017 (1‑). Accademia University Press. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2314
    Basili, Roberto, Malvina Nissim, et Giorgio Satta, éd. Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-It 2017. Torino: Accademia University Press, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2314.
    Basili, Roberto, et al., éditeurs. Proceedings of the Fourth Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics CLiC-It 2017. Accademia University Press, 2017, https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.2314.
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