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Geographies of Contact

 | 
Caroline Lehni
, 
Fanny Moghaddassi
, 
Hélène Ibata
, 
et al.

Introduction. East and West Standing Face to Face: For a Material History of Cultural Contacts

Caroline Lehni

Texte intégral

“Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,
Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God’s great Judgment Seat;
But there is neither East nor West, border, nor breed, nor birth,
When two strong men stand face to face,
though they come from the ends of the earth!”
(Rudyard Kipling, “The Ballad of East and West”)

  • 1 See Edward W. Said, Orientalism. Western Conceptions of the Orient (1978), London, Penguin Books, 1 (...)

1Of the opening stanza of Kipling’s “Ballad of East and West,” only the first two lines are usually quoted, as a way of insisting on supposedly intractable differences between two distant parts of the world. The meaning of the whole stanza—and indeed, of the whole poem—is distinctly other, a reassertion not only of the possibility of such individual contacts, but of the richness of encounters between Britain and the Orient. One might consider the usual treatment of this poem to be reflective of the extent to which post-Saidian critiques of Orientalism have tended to emphasize the adversarial nature of such contacts. Such an approach has increasingly been called into question by accounts that have drawn attention to phenomena of transculturation and hybridization, to the regional forms of relationship that developed in imperial peripheries and to the importance of networks or of micro-histories.1 In line with this more recent research which has focused on colonial contexts and cross-cultural exchanges rather than the unilateral imposition of western epistemological or representational models, this collection of essays is animated by a desire to go beyond the somewhat reductive approach usually implied by misquoting Kipling’s poetry and, instead, propose a critical reappraisal of some of the different ways in which Britain and the Middle East have stood “face to face”: from the crusades of the Middle Ages to the early twentieth century and the development of mass tourism, encounters between the British Isles and the Middle East have indeed taken many forms, from commercial travel to scientific expeditions or pleasure trips, from pilgrimages to colonial wars.

  • 2 Hassan Elboudrari, “L’exotisme à l’envers. Les premiers voyageurs marocains en Occident (Espagne, x (...)
  • 3 Pratt, Imperial Eyes, pp. 6-7.
  • 4 Ibid., p. 7.

2While nineteenth-century orientalist discourse tended to erase temporal or spatial specificities in its representation of a unified Orient, and to deny the scholar’s own subjective apprehension of otherness, contemporary research has emphasized the impact of the material conditions of encounter on the nature of cross-cultural exchanges and subsequent representations. In D’un Orient l’autre, Hassan Elboudrari thus underlines the necessity to examine the very modalities of the discovery of otherness,2 in other words the contents of travellers’ direct experience of alterity, as well as the intentions behind the process of travelling. In her seminal essay, Imperial Eyes, Mary Louise Pratt defines the concept of “contact zones” as invoking “the spatial and temporal copresence of subjects previously separated by geographic and historical disjunctures, and whose trajectories now intersect.”3 For Pratt, “a ‘contact’ perspective emphasizes how subjects are constituted in and by their relations to each other. [It stresses] copresence, interaction, interlocking understandings and practices, often within radically asymmetrical relations of power.”4 Identities of self and other, therefore, are not considered as fixed and intangible essences; rather, they are viewed as the fruits of negociations and co-constructions that are always dependent on the material conditions and individual specificities that characterize particular encounters.

  • 5 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans. John Ted (...)
  • 6 Ginzburg, “Microhistory”, p. 27. Jacques Revel similarly recommends the principle of scale variatio (...)

3The deliberate focus on the materiality and the location of contacts between Britain and the Middle East adopted in this book is an attempt at nuancing and challenging overly generalising narratives of orientalist representations as the sole product and reflexion of Western domination. In this perspective, the methods and practices of microhistory are particularly relevant. As Carlo Ginzburg showed, analysing discrete accidents and persons on a reduced scale, rather than adopting a wider perspective or focusing only on what is deemed representative of a general trend, can help distance oneself from the Eurocentric and teleological discourses that have long been used to account for colonial relations.5 So as to produce a more inclusive understanding of the phenomena under study, the Italian historian does not merely recommend a strict focus on details, but actually advocates “a constant back and forth between micro-and macrohistory, between close-ups and extreme long-shots, so as to continually thrust back into discussion the comprehensive vision of the historical process through apparent exceptions and cases of brief duration.”6

  • 7 See for example Sanjay Subrahmanyam, “Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early (...)
  • 8 Serge Gruzinski, Les quatre parties du monde: Histoire d’une mondialisation, Paris, La Martinière, (...)
  • 9 Caroline Douki, Philippe Minard, “Histoire globale, histoires connectées: un changement d’échelle h (...)
  • 10 Antonella Romano, “Des sciences et des savoirs en mouvement: réflexions historiographiques et enjeu (...)
  • 11 David N. Livingstone, Charles W.J. Withers (eds), Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science, Chicag (...)

4The practise of alternating between different scales of analysis, along with a similar rejection of ethnocentrism, lies at the heart of the recent development of “connected history”, a historiographical approach which has led to new forays into East-West cultural relations. The work of Sanjay Subrahmanyam is of particular interest here.7 Dismissing the clear-cut divisions into states long established by national historiographies, he lays emphasis on material contacts and cultural transfers, on the physical movements of individuals and objects as well as the more abstract, but nonetheless seminal, circulations of ideas and influences beyond national borders. Subrahmanyam, but also Serge Gruzinski and Romain Bertrand are interested in the mutual transformations and indeed co-constructions of the various actors involved in colonial encounters.8 As pointed by Caroline Douki and Philippe Minard, “microstoria and connected history are hardly incompatible. On the contrary, they both seek to tear down barriers by bringing together social, economic, cultural, and political aspects; they both aim to render the substance of social interplay and the global nature of the exchanges at its core.”9 These new historiographical perspectives have had particular influence on the history of cultural exchanges and the circulation of knowledge. As Antonella Romano shows, the history of science long remained a decontextualized history, the actors of which were seen as exceptional heroes fully responsible for the discovery of universal truths; emphasis has more recently been placed on the construction of knowledge as a process through a focus on actors, their practises, their tools and their movements.10 The central influence of place to understand this process has been underlined in David N. Livingstone and Charles W. J. Withers’s Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science, in which the authors argue that “‘where’ questions are vital in explanation of science’s ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘who’ and ‘when’”.11

5In keeping with these historiographical developments, one of the basic premises of this book is that new perspectives on East-West relations and the circulation of knowledge between Britain and the Middle East are best produced by displacing the scale of analysis, by decentring the scholarly gaze and by laying emphasis on the spatiality and materiality of contacts. Within this general framework, the present book examines various examples of cultural encounters between the British Isles and the Middle East, by laying emphasis on the material conditions of these contacts, and in particular on the geographical sites which brought East and West together. The essays that make up this book have been drawn from different disciplinary traditions, from medieval to contemporary history, from English literature to history of art and from Irish to Iranian studies. This multidisciplinary approach as well as the long period of study that has been adopted here both contribute to retracing the complexity and evolutions of a multi-faceted relation between the British Isles and the Middle East. Part of the diversity of the following essays also derives from the very definition of the Middle East: while this volume deliberately leaves aside South Asia, a region about which a much more considerable historiography exists in Britain, it encompasses a vast territory, so as to better apprehend similarities and differences, as well as phenomena of interactions and circulation from one part of the imperial periphery to the next. In this volume, one will thus read about the relations between Britain and Iran, Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, the Levant or the Arabian Peninsula. Although other middle-eastern locations are referred to, Istanbul, Cairo and Tehran feature prominently in this collection of essays, an indication of the importance of these metropolises as major centres of interaction with Britain within this larger whole. Various forms of physical encounters will also be approached, from geographical expeditions to pleasure trips, from archaeological excavations to long diplomatic stays and artistic residences. Jacqueline Jondot thus describes the advice provided by a Syrian-born writer to British would-be tourists. Both Willem Floor and Yann Richard discuss British residents established in nineteenth-century Iran, while Wendy Shaw traces the influence of a British photographer based in Istanbul. Archaeological expeditions in Iran and Egypt are explored by Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam and Stéphanie Prévost, while Daniel Foliard examines the relations involved in surveying and mapping the Arabian Peninsula.

6The essays that form the present book do not restrict themselves to instances of direct encounters, but also touch on several examples of indirect contacts. A focus on the materiality of cultural exchanges indeed must direct attention to the many objects (books, paintings, carpets, mummies, weapons or items of clothing) that were sold, stolen or offered, circulated, collected or preserved, studied, derided or imitated. Gerald MacLean thus scrutinizes the incorporation of Ottoman things in British culture from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, while Christoph Heyl focuses on a collection of Oriental objects, John Tradescant’s cabinet of curiosities. Other objects played a crucial role by helping Britons to visualize the Middle East, like Orientalist paintings of the Suez Canal and medieval maps of Palestine, which are analysed by Hélène Braeuner and Damien Coulon. A focus on places of contacts needs to include imagined geographies and the virtual spaces reconstructed for a British audience. Fanny Moghaddassi thus discusses the literary devices used in Mandeville’s Travels, the effect of which is to transform the act of reading into a form of pilgrimage by proxy and the book, into a substitute for the Holy Land. Bridging the gap between geographies of the imagination and real places of mediated contact with the East, Hélène Ibata describes the immersive illusion spaces of the early London panoramas, thanks to which the landscapes of the Ottoman empire were transposed into the heart of London. Two sites that can be regarded as the perfect illustrations of the high culture of nineteenth-century western elites feature in two other essays: Isabelle Gadoin highlights the crucial role of a Parisian salon as the site of encounter between British (and indeed European) intellectuals and ancient Persian poetry, while Pauline Collombier-Lakeman depicts the Westminster Parliament as an indirect contact zone between Irish and Egyptian nationalists.

7Some of these encounters involved fruitful collaborations between Britons and Easterners, as in the production of maps, which required, as Daniel Foliard shows, resorting to indigenous expertise; others produced forms of acculturation, as when Oriental items, such as the thoroughbred horses, tea and carpets analysed by Gerald MacLean, were fully naturalized to the extent that they stopped being perceived as foreign Ottoman things to be viewed as central elements of English culture. Wendy Shaw illustrates processes of hybridization and transculturation by showing how European visual conventions were both imported and transformed by early Ottoman photographers. Not all encounters produced knowledge, though, some interpreters of the Orient having largely reproduced British readers’former preconceptions rather than challenging their veracity, as Jacqueline Jondot argues about Gregory Wortabet. Although clashes between Englishmen and Orientals are mentioned in some of the essays, including references to the crusades in Damien Coulon’s article, or to a legal dispute in Willem Floor’s text, it is interesting to note that the idea of a competition among European powers is also recurrent: both Stéphanie Prévost and Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam illustrate the rivalries between British and French archaeologists; the same antagonism features in Yann Richard’s essays about British and French residents in Iran, while Daniel Foliard draws attention to the impact of colonial disputes over the production of geographical knowledge of the Arabian Peninsula. Conversely, Pauline Collombier-Lakeman explores how an intellectual rapprochement between Irish and Egyptian nationalists in the 1880s was nourished by a common contestation of the British Empire. Just as for contacts between East and West, one should not over-simplify the interactions between Europeans who formed an interest in the Middle East: as Isabelle Gadoin shows, European Orientalists did engage in mutually enriching intellectual dialogue, in spite of colonial rivalries.

8Through a focus on the material conditions of encounters between Britain and the Middle East as well as on sites of interaction, the essays comprised in this volume thus aim to chart the processes by which knowledge was circulated, aesthetic influences developed and political values transposed—or not. Indeed, although some of the transcultural relations explored in this book did prove enriching, challenging or enduring, some of the essays conclude on the superficial or partial nature of the contacts established. Rather than a purely chronological progression, or a subdivision focusing on sub-regions within the Middle-East, a thematic outline has been chosen so as to allow echoes and contrasts to emerge between various times and locations, thus identifying a typology of encounters.

9The first three chapters, “Scripting the Orient”, “Mapping the Orient” and “Objects Transferred” dwell on some of the oldest practices involving direct or indirect contacts between East and West: the production and use of textual representations, cartography and the circulation of objects. “Scripting the Orient” includes three essays which focus on reconstructions of the Middle East through textual discourse, be it literary or historical. Fanny Moghaddassi explains how Mandeville’s Travels, an extremely popular medieval text, created the illusion of actual contacts and of a circulation through real sites thanks to a variety of literary devices. She shows that the creation of a genial narrative voice who is interested in other cultures opens the text further onto new discoveries, bringing the English and the Middle East into actual contact through the reproduction of foreign alphabets for instance. Jacqueline Jondot focuses on the ambiguous figure of Gregory Wortabet, a Christian Syrian writing of his travels through his native land for an English readership. She argues that his dual role as guide and tourist accounts for a narrative which is eventually shaped by Western expectations rather than informed by the discovery of cultural difference. In spite of his linguistic competence, Wortabet seems to stand in the way of real exchanges, choosing to foreground visual forms of contact rather than individual and dialogic interactions. In an article about the British in Persia during the Qajar era, Yann Richard offers a historiographical analysis of the common defects of ideologically charged historical narratives of the period. He goes on to show how the diaries and unofficial accounts of French and British residents can serve to rewrite this contested history.

10The second chapter, entitled “Mapping the Orient”, explores the process of geographical representation at two distinct moments of East-West relations, with two essays that attempt to unveil the ideological implications as well as the negotiations at work in producing maps of the Orient. Both Damien Coulon, in a text about the cartography of the Levant produced by the English in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and Daniel Foliard, in an article about a map of Arabia produced by cartographer Frederick Fraser Hunter in 1908, write about reconciling prior knowledge, ideology and vision of the world with actual accounts and observations. Interestingly, both essays also underline that maps were often produced by people with actually little or no first-hand experience of the places represented.

11In chapter 3, “Objects Transferred”, the book turns to examining how Oriental objects were circulated, collected, represented and used in Britain to produce ideas of self and other in the early modern period. Gerald MacLean shows that Oriental objects were received with admiration and envy and stood for the imperial splendour of the Ottomans. He argues that Ottoman things were used to help refashion the insular English into the imperial British. After characterizing cabinets of curiosities as a pan-European phenomenon in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, Christoph Heyl focuses on John Tradescant’s collection, which included many items brought back from the Ottoman Empire. He argues that appreciation of these objects did not rest so much on their workmanship or their natural beauty as on the stories through which they were mediated, thus transporting visitors of the cabinet of curiosities into an Orient of the imagination.

12The last three chapters cover practices that are more closely related to the modern age and in particular to the nineteenth century, which saw the emergence of new forms of visualisation of space, the consolidation of scientific disciplines as well as the development of new power relations as well as new forms of contestations within formal and informal empires. The three essays that form chapter 4, “Sites Turned into Sights”, share a common focus on visual representations and on charting the implications of the translation of actual places into landscapes aimed for the satisfaction of British viewers. Hélène Ibata looks at the early London panoramas as virtual “contact zones” between Britain and the Ottoman Empire and examines the implications of such mediated encounters. She argues that, by providing visual immersion without tangible contact, the panorama simultaneously promised and denied control of foreign spaces: while the geographical gaze offered by the new technology had undeniable geopolitical and imperialist uses, the fully immersive space was also a place for overpowering aesthetic responses. Hélène Braeuner then traces the evolution in British mid-nineteenth-century painted representations of the Isthmus of Suez, which was then at the centre of intense colonial competition between European powers. She argues that British painters of Suez moved beyond the conventions of the picturesque and Romanticism earlier than others, which she interprets as a form of symbolic appropriation. Wendy Shaw highlights the rich intercultural context of highly cosmopolitan nineteenth-century Istanbul, through the example of James Robertson, a pioneering British photographer based in the city, and Ottoman photographers who were inspired by aspects of his visual practice. Issues of influence and reciprocity are emphasized, as Shaw reflects on the extent to which an aesthetic dialogue took place.

13The next chapter, entitled “Orientalist Contact Zones”, focuses on the role of British “savants” in elaborating knowledge on the Oriental past and highlights the importance of cosmopolitan, pan-European sites of encounters such as museums, archaeological sites, libraries and “salons”, leading not only to contacts between British experts and Oriental things, people and texts, but also with other European savants. As she follows the itinerary of an ancient Persian text that influenced English poet Matthew Arnold, Isabelle Gadoin tracks down an elusive German Orientalist, Jules Mohl, and, in the process, sheds light on the complex networks and exchanges between European intellectuals who shared an interest for Oriental ideas and literature. Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam pieces together the history of archaeological excavations at Susa: British archaeologists formed an early interest in the site, producing valuable knowledge on the Persian past, while at the same time depriving Iranians of their antiquities; the French however took over from the 1880s—an illustration of the various clashes and rivalries involved in cultural imperialism. Stéphanie Prévost investigates the politics of preservation of Egyptian antiquities in the years 1882-1898, which corresponded to the heyday of Britain’s intermingling in Egyptian affairs. She takes up the issue of cultural imperialism and discusses the articulation between colonial rivalries, especially between France and Britain, and the emergence of international collaboration in the preservation of antiquities.

14The sixth and final chapter in this volume, entitled “Transposing Legal and Political Principles”, includes two essays focusing on sites that have not commonly been analysed as “contact zones” between Britain and the Middle East: a mixed court of justice in Qajar Iran and the Westminster Parliament. Willem Floor discusses a rare murder case that was judged by a religious court in the presence of a British consul because the victim was a British pensioner. As Floor shows, this case tested the universality of moral and legal principles through the clash between British and Persian legal norms. Focusing on the reactions of Irish nationalist MPs to the Egyptian revolt of 1881-82, Pauline Collombier-Lakeman’s analysis reveals an overall sympathetic nationalist discourse, informed by the sense of a common cause, and a keenly felt awareness of the economic considerations behind imperial policies. Westminster thus became the theatre of a cross-imperial companionship between Egyptian and Irish nationalists, driven not just by the ideals of the latter but also by their pragmatism.

15Although the frame of this volume is wide, both in terms of time and in terms of place, there is no attempt at providing a single, overriding vision of cultural relations between Britain and the Middle East. Rather, through the rich contextualization and careful detail of the following essays, as well as through the interdisciplinary echoes and collaborations offered through these chapters, the present volume demonstrates the necessity to approach the highly complex question of Orientalism through a precise attention to the conditions in which people interacted with each other, in other words to the materiality of encounters and the geographies of contact.

Bibliographie

Bibliography

Bertrand, R., “Rencontres impériales. L’histoire connectée et les relations euroasiatiques”, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, no. 54-4 bis, 5/2007. www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2007-5-page69.htm, Accessed on 9 August 2016.

Bhabha, H., The Location of Culture, Abingdon and New York, Routledge, 1994.

Douki, C., Minard, P., “Histoire globale, histoires connectées: un changement d’échelle historiographique?”, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, no. 54-4bis, 5/2007. www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2007-5-page-7.htm. Accessed on 9 August 2016.

Elboudrari, H., “L’exotisme à l’envers. Les premiers voyageurs marocains en Occident (Espagne, xviie-xviiie siècles) et leur expérience de l’altérité.”, in Jean-Claude Vatin, D’un Orient l’autre, Paris, CNRS, 1991.

Ginzburg, C., The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, Trans. John Tedeschi, Anne Tedeschi, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 1980.

Ginzburg, C., “Microhistory: Two or Three Things I Know about It”, Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 1, Autumn 1993, pp. 10-35.

Inankur, Z., Lewis R. and Roberts M., The Poetics and Politics of Place: Ottoman Istanbul and British Orientalism, Istanbul, Pera Museum, 2011.

Livingstone, D. N., Withers C. W. J. (eds), Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011.

Pratt, M.-L., Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, New York, Routledge, 1992.

Revel, J. (ed.), Jeux d’échelle. La micro-analyse à l’expérience, Paris, Gallimard-Le Seuil, 1996.

Romano, A., “Des sciences et des savoirs en mouvement: réflexions historiographiques et enjeux méthodologiques”, Diaspora, Circulations, migrations, histoire, no. 23-4, 2014.

Said, E. W., Orientalism. Western Conceptions of the Orient (1978), London, Penguin Books, 1995.

Subrahmanyam, S., “Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia,” in Victor Lieberman (ed.), Beyond Binary Histories: Re-imagining Eurasia to c. 1830, Ann Arbor, MI, The University of Michigan Press, 1999, pp. 289-316.

Subrahmanyam, S., Explorations in Connected History: From the Tagus to the Ganges, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.

Notes

1 See Edward W. Said, Orientalism. Western Conceptions of the Orient (1978), London, Penguin Books, 1995. Among the texts that redefined or challenged Said’s analysis, see Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, Abingdon and New York, Routledge, 1994; Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, New York, Routledge, 1992; Zeynep Inankur, Reina Lewis and Mary Roberts, The Poetics and Politics of Place: Ottoman Istanbul and British Orientalism, Istanbul, Pera Museum, 2011.

2 Hassan Elboudrari, “L’exotisme à l’envers. Les premiers voyageurs marocains en Occident (Espagne, xviie-xviiie siècles) et leur expérience de l’altérité”, in Jean-Claude Vatin, D’un Orient l’autre, Paris, CNRS, 1991.

3 Pratt, Imperial Eyes, pp. 6-7.

4 Ibid., p. 7.

5 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans. John Tedeschi, Anne Tedeschi, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 1980; “Microhistory: Two or Three Things I Know about It”, Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 1, Autumn 1993, pp. 10-35.

6 Ginzburg, “Microhistory”, p. 27. Jacques Revel similarly recommends the principle of scale variation, so as to adopt a multidimensional approach to historical objects. See Revel (ed.), Jeux d’échelle. La micro-analyse à l’expérience, Paris, Gallimard-Le Seuil, 1996.

7 See for example Sanjay Subrahmanyam, “Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia”, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 31, no. 3 and Explorations in Connected History: From the Tagus to the Ganges, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005.

8 Serge Gruzinski, Les quatre parties du monde: Histoire d’une mondialisation, Paris, La Martinière, 2004; Romain Bertrand, “Rencontres impériales. L’histoire connectée et les relations euro-asiatiques”, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, no. 54-4 bis, May 2007. www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoiremoderne-et-contemporaine-2007-5-page-69.htm. Accessed on 9 August 2016.

9 Caroline Douki, Philippe Minard, “Histoire globale, histoires connectées: un changement d’échelle historiographique?”, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, no. 54-4 bis, May 2007. www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2007-5-page-7.htm. Accessed on 9 August 2016.

10 Antonella Romano, “Des sciences et des savoirs en mouvement: réflexions historiographiques et enjeux méthodologiques”, Diaspora, Circulations, migrations, histoire, no. 23-4, 2014, p. 66-79: p. 66.

11 David N. Livingstone, Charles W.J. Withers (eds), Geographies of Nineteenth-Century Science, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. ix.

Auteur

Senior lecturer in British civilization at Sciences Po Strasbourg (University of Strasbourg). Her dissertation on the representations of Egypt in nineteenthcentury Britain through travel book illustrations earned her a PhD from Paris Diderot in 2007. Her current research centres on British visual and cultural history, more particularly on Orientalism and the reception of Egyptian architecture. Among other recent articles, she is the author of “‘Never the Twain Shall Meet’: The Impossible Encounter of Self and Other in the Illustrations of Nineteenth-Century British Travel Books on Egypt” (in C. Dubois & V. Alayrac, eds., The Foreignness of Foreigners: Cultural Representations of the Other in the British Isles (17th-20th centuries), Cambridge, Cambridge Scholars, 2015

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