Guerres et paix
|Deuxième partie : Guerres et paix : histoire des idées et idées de l’histoire
“Corsica Boswell”: Ignominious Peace and Honourable War
Texte intégral
- 1 Frederick A. Pottle, James Boswell: The Earlier Years 1740-1769 (London: Heinemann, 1966) 366.
1The so-called Macaulayan formulation which turned James Boswell into “Corsica Boswell” has left its imprint in the realm of literary criticism. The label characterizes the author of An Account of Corsica, the Journal of a Tour to That lsland; and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli, published in 1768, as a somewhat histrionic, over-sensitive defender not only of the Corsican revolution of 1768-69 but of all preceding Corsican revolutions. Frederick A. Pottle, Boswell’s renowned biographer, defines such a cut-and-dried characterization of the effusive Scottish writer as being Etonian, “Men of the Etonian sensibility never wear their hearts on their sleeves, never ‘speak out.’ And they are made acutely uncomfortable by authors who do.”1 Indeed. young James Boswell was both outspoken and wholehearted when he embraced the Corsican cause as early as October 12, 1765, on setting foot in Centuri in northern Corsica. His perceptions of peace and war are those of a perky young man full of idealistic fervour and not those of a manicdepressive middle-aged man. Two facets illustrate the links which, to Boswell’s mind, equate peace with that which entails shame, dishonour or disgrace on the one hand, and war with that which dispenses honour and reputation on the other hand. One side focuses on Boswell’s comprehension of the history of Corsica. The other side develops from a different angle, that of an unfledged Scotsman urging Great Britain and the rest of Europe to take vigorous action in support of the Corsicans.
- 2 James Boswell, “Inviolable Plan,” ms. 88 Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
2Boswell’s insight into the unravelling of the Corsican history rests on one essential tenet: the unalienable right for a nation, for a people to resist and to revolt when peace means an ignominious repression of freedom. In 1763, two years before he visited Corsica, an unexpected detour on his Grand Tour, Boswell was not the mature lawyer making his way at the English bar and condemning the French Revolution from London. He was as can be read in his so-called “Inviolable Plan” drafted on October 15, 1763, determined “upon solid principles to be a man.”2 Both his youthful ambition and the melancholy streak in his character led him to delve into what he thought was the heroic resistance of the Corsicans against their oppressors. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whom Boswell met in Môtiers, in December 1764 prompted his trip to Corsica the year after, as a cure for his melancholy. The conversation in French between the philosopher and the young Scottish traveller testifies, somewhat naively, to Boswell's noble aspirations:
- 3 Geoffrey Scott and Frederick A. Pottle, eds., Private Papers of James Boswell from Malahide Castle (...)
BOSWELL : Avez-vous besoin d’un Ambassadeur ?
Je vous offre mes services [sic], M. Boswell Ambassadeur extraordinaire de M. Rousseau à l’Isle de Corse.
ROUSSEAU : Voulez-vous être Roi de Corse [?]
BOSWELL : Ma foi! ha! ha! non. C’est au-dessus de mes forces, (with a low bow). Pourtant, je puis dire : “J’ai refusé d’être Roi.”3
- 4 Geoffrey Scott and Frederick A. Pottle,—, eds., Private Papers of James Boswell from Malahide Cast (...)
- 5 James Boswell, An Account of Corsica, the Journal of a Tour to That Island; and Memoirs of Pascal (...)
- 6 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 243-45.
- 7 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 82.
3It is useful to specify that until the publication of the Tour to the Hebrides (1785), there is the utmost inconsistency in Boswell’s spelling, punctuation and capitalization. A few months after this conversation with Rousseau on the morning of October 11, 1765, Boswell started from Leghorn and embarked upon his Corsican adventures. The commander of the British squadron in the Mediterranean, Commodore Thomas Harrison furnished him with a document of identification which said that Boswell was “travelling for his amusement, instruction, and curiosity.”4 Though Boswell did not stay long in Corsica —he arrived on October 12, 1765 and left Bastia on November 20,— he succeeded in seeing the General of the nation, Pascal Paoli (1725-1807), who had been fighting against the Genoese since 1755. To Boswell, Pascal Paoli was the epitome of the heroic, honourable warrior rebelling against peace ignominiously imposed upon him by the Genoese invader. In An Account of Corsica, the Journal of a Tour to That Island; and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli, Boswell focuses on the grandiose nature of the warring nation. When he first met the General of the nation, Boswell paid him the following compliment: “Sir, I am upon my travels, and have lately visited Rome. I am come from seeing the ruins of one brave and free people: I now see the rise of another.”5 In an appendix containing documents on the State of Corsica —“Manifesta del Generale, e Supremo Consiglio di Stato del Regno di Corsica” and “Doge Govematori, e Procuratori della Republica di Genova” —published respectively on May 20, 1760, and May 9, 1761, Boswell was intent on stressing the antinomy between the Corsican principle of a just war, “La giustizia della nostra guerra contro la repubblica di Genova” and the Genoese stance based on paternalistic, treacherous peace, “paterna nostra amorevolezza.”6 In the second chapter An Account of Corsica dealing with the successive revolutions led by the Corsican people against its oppressors, Boswell asserts that Corsican history is a paradigm case, that of a concatenation of justified heroic wars waged with a fierce spirit of independence against the consecutive dominations of the so-called “pacifying” troops of the invaders: the Phenicians, Etruscans, Carthagenians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Pisans, the Genoese and the French. To drive his point home, Boswell resorts to illustrious commentators of the Corsican plight. He refers to Montesquieu and L’Esprit des lois (1748), “Une république d’Italie tenait des insulaires sous son obéissance; mais son droit politique et civil à leur égard était vicieux.”7
4In his paradigmatic discourse on the past and present situations of Corsica epitomized by an antithesis between the legitimacy of revolutions and the peace of subjection, Boswell, the historian, was averse to factual descriptions. He revelled in embellishing his presentation of the past of the islanders with poetical fables. He thus chose to depict the Corsicans as the descendants of the stouthearted, legendary Argonauts. François Pommereul, a captain in the French service, completed his own history of the island of Corsica two years after An Account of Corsica was published. He criticized Boswell harshly for his zestful, enthusiastic bias:
- 8 R.J. Pommereul, Histoire de l’isle de Corse (1779; Nîmes: C: Lacour, 1990) 6-9.
Ce romancier n'a vu dans les Corses qu’un peuple de héros, mourant sans regret pour la patrie, sacrifiant tous les goûts, immolant toutes les passions à la plus digne de l'homme, la liberté. On trouvait, il est vrai, beaucoup de ces vertus chez les Corses, mais la nation était loin d’être vertueuse; il la voyait avec les yeux de l’enthousiasme, et il la peignait comme il la voyait.… Quiconque fait profession de dire la vérité, doit être sourd à l’amitié comme à la haine.8
- 9 James Boswell, Life of Johnson (1791; Oxford: OUP, 1980) 397.
5Contrary to Pommereul, Boswell’s main objective was to prove that the Corsicans were not rebels and malcontents, but honourable patriots whose unflinching virtue had been their capacity for resistance. Boswell was following in the footsteps of Colonel Matteo Buttafoco (1731-1801) whom he met in Vescovato while on his tour of Corsica on November 8, 1765. The year before, Matteo Buttafoco, a Corsican in the service of the French, had sent Jean-Jacques Rousseau a memoir in which he justified the Corsican revolution against a tyrannical peace imposed by the Genoese. In his Life of Johnson, in a passage dated May 28, 1768, Boswell vindicates the concept of resistance, “But when restraint is unnecessary, and so close as to gall those who are subject to it, the people may and ought to remonstrate; and, if relief is not granted, to resist.”9 To Boswell, Corsica was the quintessence of reputable warfare since peace was equated with oppression, tyranny, and subjection.
- 10 Cesare Ripa, Corsica, Iconologia, Siena, The Short Title Catalogue of Emblem Books and Related Wor (...)
6In the frontispiece of British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans: By Several Hands, which were collected and published by Boswell in December 1768 as a contribution to his vibrant defence of the Corsican cause, the iconographical representation follows the tradition inaugurated by Cesare Ripa in his Iconologia of 1613. Ripa’s Corsica is worth examining.10
7The tutelary allegory symbolizing the Corsican nation is a female warrior who looks rough. The dog by her side is specifically Corsican. Boswell was quite familiar with those dogs since, as was mentioned in the London Chronicle of January 14, 1766:
- 11 Frank Brady, and Frederick A. Pottle, eds., Boswell on the Grand Tour: Italy, Corsica and France, (...)
When Mr Boswell took leave of the General de Paoli, His Excellency made him a present of a gun and a pair of pistols of excellent workmanship made in Corsica, and one of the large mountain dogs so famous in that island for their hunting the wild boar and for their guarding their master.11
- 12 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 205.
8As for the weapon which the female warrior holds in her right hand, it is called a “corsesque,” a spear which was widely used by the islanders, and which, according to Ripa, was a reminder that Corsicans were valorous soldiers. In order to justify the violence which had its roots in their search for freedom and deliverance, Boswell, referring to Hobbes in An Account of Corsica, extolled self-defence, “By reason of the wicked oppression of the bad, even a good people, must in self-defence, have recourse to the qualities of war, force and fraud, nay to a kind of savage rapacity.”12
- 13 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 139.
9But it did not take Boswell long to realize that self-defence, if unsustained by foreign aid and intervention, was of no avail to the islanders. In order to bring about the repeal of a Proclamation of December 29, 1763, that forbade British subjects to provide the so-called Corsican rebels with any aid, Boswell started a campaign that aimed at shaking Britain’s indifference to the unfortunate fate of the Corsicans. The balance of power in Europe and the general eagerness for peace shown by a country that was fiscally exhausted stood in the way of the young Scotsman. In his Account of Corsica, Boswell lingers on all the wars waged by the Corsicans against the Genoese since 1729. He focuses on the French interventions of 1738, 1748 and on the two treaties of Compiègne, that of 1756 and that of 1764 fixed for four years, and according to which the Genoese were provided with French military help. “If French soldiers were again in the island,” writes Boswell of those he regarded as vile oppressors, “continual skirmishes would ensue; France would be provoked, and a bloody war would be the consequence…,”13 The survival of the islanders was at stake and Britain’s desire for peace could appear but shameful if it meant not paying attention to the distress of an oppressed nation and not waging an honourable war in favour of liberty. As early as February 22, 1766, hardly ten days after his return to London from his tour on the Continent, Boswell paid a visit to William Pitt in order to enlist British support for the Corsican cause. The interview with Pitt is one of the most felicitous recoveries of the Malahide hoard, and Boswell's cousin, the Earl of Buchan, has recorded the fact that Boswell presented himself in full Corsican dress. Pitt emphasized the difficulty of his position but was nevertheless extremely sympathetic:
- 14 Scott and Pottle, eds., Private Papers, vol. 7: 80.
Now, Sir, I will explain to you how I cannot properly recieve [sic] communications from General De’ Paoli, for I am a Privy Counselor…. Sir, I should be sorry that in any corner of the world, however distant or however small, it should be suspected that I could ever be indifferent to the cause of liberty.14
- 15 “Corsican Gazette,” London Chronicle 4 Oct. 1766: 366
- 16 Boswell. An Account of Corsica 225.
- 17 A Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Shelburne, on the Fatal Consequences of Suffering th (...)
- 18 “Letters from Amsterdam,” London Chronicle 28 Apr. 1768: 402.
10Unfortunately, what with the frustrations of his policies at home and abroad, what with his real physical infirmities, Pitt, by early March 1767, had no real power left, and the Duke of Grafton carried on the ministry still given Chatham's name. In the face of all opposition, Boswell continued his propaganda campaign on behalf of the Corsicans to have Britain wage a just war and relinquish disgraceful peace. He had started a crusade in the British newspapers even before his Grand Tour was over on January 7, 1766. Boswell had all the information needed since he was the official translator of the Corsican gazette. In the London Chronicle of October 4, 1766, the Corsican gazette which was titled Ragguagli dell’isola di Corsica was described as a reliable source of information, “published by authority of the Supreme Government of the Island…. and the Public may be assured, that whatever they read under the Article of the Corsican Gazette is genuine news.”15 And yet, between 1766 and 1768 Boswell resorted to fiction and to inventions in order to arouse the British people’s numb conscience and change their discreditable policy of non-interference. Boswell praised English newspapers for their variety and versatility, “An English newspaper, while it informs the judicious of what is really doing in Europe, can keep pace with the wildest fancy in feigned adventures…,”16 Boswell’s taste for mystification was such that he created a Signor Romanzo sent to all the courts of Europe by Pascal Paoli in search for military assistance. His inventions aimed at drawing the attention of a government which was preoccupied with discontents and dissensions both in America and in England. Relations with nations on the Continent the government now considered of lesser import. Nevertheless Boswell tried to arouse the commercial spirit and interest of the British government. Fake economic conquests on the part of British companies in Corsica were reported in the papers. Pamphleteers gave Boswell fuel for further influence on the government. Joseph Cawthorne (fl. 1764-96), who had been a merchant in Madeira before he took to writing, sent a biting polemical letter to William Petty (1737-1805), second Earl of Shelburne, to stress the vital importance of Britain’s fish trade with Corsica.17 Boswell had every intention of giving the British a guilty conscience regarding their policy of nonintervention. To that effect, he concocted a last story for the London Chronicle, “Letters from Amsterdam say, that a treaty is actually on the tapis between the States General, and the Corsicans, by which the Dutch oblige themselves to send a formidable naval armament to the assistance of the Corsicans.”18 Boswell struck all possible chords to have Britain interfere in favour of the Corsicans, even if that meant putting an end to peace which had been freshly acquired.
- 19 Joseph Cawthorne, letter to James Boswell, 22 Sept. 1769, ms. C 771, Boswell Papers, Yale Universi (...)
- 20 James Boswell, British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans: By Several Hands (London: Printed (...)
- 21 John Fraser Ramsey, “Anglo-French Relations, 1763-1770: ‘A Study of Choiseul’ s Foreign Policy’” U (...)
- 22 Boswell, British Essays 129.
- 23 British Essays 27-40.
11The treaty of Versailles by which Genova ceded Corsica to France on May 15, 1768, cast a temporary pall on his hopes, but it also unleashed a further bout of deeply felt resentment which found an outlet in the collection of the aforementioned British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans. Boswell summoned up the spirits of some of his friends who contributed to the volume. General Oglethorpe (1696-1785), the founder of Georgia, was persuaded to write three essays in the name of what he held most dear — liberty. Edward Dilly (1732-79), a liberal and nonconformist bookseller wrote one and so did John Dick (1720-1804), British Consul in Leghorn, but Joseph Cawthorne, the pamphleteer, claimed to have written it at Dick’s request.19 In the preface to the Essays Boswell hoped that the volume would testify to the courage of the people of Great Britain who, as individuals, proved less wavering than their ministry.20 Indeed, there was a split in the cabinet until June 1768: whereas Shelburne and Chatham gave their full support to a military intervention in Corsica, Bedford and Weymouth contended that the island was not worth the risk of war with the French. They refused to get involved in hostilities over an island in which they felt Britain had no strategic interest.21 To counteract the blameworthy attitude of some Members of the Government, Boswell rejoiced over such private initiatives as those taken by “every true friend of liberty.”22 In the anonymous fifth essay which had been first published as an open letter in the Public Advertiser on June 1, 1768, a subscription on behalf of the Corsicans is proposed. The author who signs “An Englishman,” represents those worthy individuals in whom Boswell took pride. The author, of the British Essays was a propagandist who hammered his point home. He was always harping on the losses the British nation would incur if it stopped cultivating a trade with Corsica. In his sixth essay, he considered the pusillanimity of a ministry in the conduct of its foreign affairs responsible for the lawless riots in London. If the seamen were seditious, the reason was to be found in their being unemployed because of a lack of commercial intercourse with the Corsican islanders.23 The ministry was reluctant to break peace, however shameful it was to Boswell, because of seditious and factious troubles at home, but in the eyes of the hierophantic expounder of the Corsican fight for survival, the turmoil was partly due to Britain’s craven foreign policy of disengagement. Boswell’s plea was all the more forceful as Great Britain was the centre of attraction of all the powers of Europe:
- 24 British Essays VI-VII.
But all have fixed their attention on Great Britain, as on the power most immediately concerned, when her rival and constant enemy is evidently acquiring a command of the Mediterranean trade, and preparing in the most effectual manner, for a successful war.24
12Boswell felt that there was no time to waste. The urgency of the situation found expression in the intensity of the feelings. In the preface of British Essays, the stress is not laid on form but on emotional content:
- 25 British Essays X.
I do not publish the following collection of Essays as pieces of accurate reasoning and elegant stile. Whatever may be the abilities of some of their authours, those Essays have been written in a hurry, when there was no time to attend to correctness of composition; when those who wrote them wished only to express what they strongly felt, without any prospect of literary fame.25
- 26 British Essays [III-IV].
13Boswell is arrayed in the costume of the pugnacious campaigner and proselytizer. His weapon is the explicit clarity of his message. He aims at getting across to the whole British nation and his thoughts are deliberately tautological, as the frontispiece of the volume he devised shows plainly. Its unambiguous Latin motto, Magna Britannia Corsicam protegit is repeated in an equally clear-cut commentary, “Great Britain, with a generous dignity, holds her shield over the head of Corsica, assuring her of safety.”26 Because Britannia is meant to protect Corsica from her French assailant, she is not shown reclining on her shield, as the tradition has had it since the earliest representation of the allegorical figure on a Roman coin of Antoninus Pius.
- 27 Rev. of British Essays, Critical Review 27 (1769): 68.
14Unfortunately, the incisive commentary of the Critical Review, which was published in January 1769, was to prove prophetic, “[Great] Britain holds her shield over [Corsica’s] head, though we think a little awkwardly, because by its direction it cannot protect her from a stab of a dagger which France aims at Corsica’s vitals.”27 Indeed, on May 8, 1769, the battle of Ponte Nuovo was fatal to the Corsican troops and to their General Pascal Paoli who were vanquished because they were unaided. Pascal Paoli fell a victim to an absence of real political will on the part of Britain and the whole of Europe. Changes within the Italian balance of power did not have any real political effects on the international scene. The defence of colonial interests was judged more significant than European issues such as Corsica. Peace, however reprehensible it seemed to Boswell and his acolytes, was preferred to a creditable war vindicating the rights of a people. In “Verses, in the Character of a Corsican at Shakespeare's Jubilee at Stratfordupon-Avon” dated September 6, 1769, Boswell expresses his dashed hopes in an elegiac tone:
- 28 James Boswell, “Verses in the Character of a Corsican at Shakespeare’s Jubilee, at Stratford-upon (...)
Behold a Corsican! — in better Days,
Eager I fought my Country’s Fame to raise;
When o’er our Camp PAOLI’s Banners wav’d,
And all the threats of hostile France we brav’d,
……………………………………..
And our Invaders tenfold Force prevail’d.28
Fig. 2. James Boswell, Frontispiece, British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans: By Several Hands (London: Printed for Edward and Charles Dilly, in the Poultry, 1769) [N. pag.].
- 29 James Boswell: The Late Years, 1769-1795 (London: Heinemann, 1984) 482-83.
- 30 James Boswell, letter to Pasquale de Paoli, 31 March 1794, ms. L 1025, Boswell Papers, Yale Univer (...)
- 31 James Boswell, letter to Pasquale de Paoli [? March 1795,] ms. L 1027, Boswell Papers, Yale Univer (...)
- 32 James Boswell, “Notes for a Projected Life of General Oglethorpe,” ms. M 208, Boswell Papers, Yale (...)
15The war of honour belonged to a golden past. Pascal Paoli, exiled in England had to endure peace which had been imposed upon him. And yet, in 1794, it seemed as if all oppositions came to an end when the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794-1796) was founded. Boswell, who had always been persistent in his faith in the Corsicans, asked to be sent as a minister of his government to celebrate the honourable, long-awaited alliance but he was refused the appointment. Sir Gilbert Elliot was chosen as the Viceroy. Paoli, who had left England since 1790, was sent back in October 1795, because of the Viceroy’s hostile feelings towards him, but he was not to see his constant friend again.29 Boswell had died a few months before, on May 19, 1795. In his last letters sent to General Paoli on March 31, 1794, and in March 1795, the Laird of Auchinleck had remained critical of the British government.30 He regretted that the islanders should be under the dominion of Great Britain.31 The older man had not forgotten the lessons of the past. Corsica was freed from the French yoke, but Britain seemed to have replaced the former conqueror. The Corsican cause may have been to Boswell, as some critics have repeatedly claimed, an “ostentatious means of self-interest,”32 nevertheless it should be remembered that, thanks to his writings, the island won the attention of Enlightenment thinkers and political debaters.
Notes
1 Frederick A. Pottle, James Boswell: The Earlier Years 1740-1769 (London: Heinemann, 1966) 366.
2 James Boswell, “Inviolable Plan,” ms. 88 Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
3 Geoffrey Scott and Frederick A. Pottle, eds., Private Papers of James Boswell from Malahide Castle in the Collection of Lt-Colonel Ralph Heyward Isham, vol. 4 (Mount Vernon: Privately Printed, 1928) 106.
4 Geoffrey Scott and Frederick A. Pottle,—, eds., Private Papers of James Boswell from Malahide Castle in the Collection of Lt-Colonel Ralph Isham, vol. 7 (Mount Vernon: Privately Printed, 1930) 4-5.
5 James Boswell, An Account of Corsica, the Journal of a Tour to That Island; and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli (Glasgow: Printed by Robert and Andrew Foulis for Edward and Charles Dilly in the Poultry, London. 1768) 292.
6 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 243-45.
7 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 82.
8 R.J. Pommereul, Histoire de l’isle de Corse (1779; Nîmes: C: Lacour, 1990) 6-9.
9 James Boswell, Life of Johnson (1791; Oxford: OUP, 1980) 397.
10 Cesare Ripa, Corsica, Iconologia, Siena, The Short Title Catalogue of Emblem Books and Related Works in the Stirling Maxwell Collection of Glasgow University Library: 1499-1917, originally compiled by Hester M. Black (Glasgow: Scolar Press, 1988) no. 1382.
11 Frank Brady, and Frederick A. Pottle, eds., Boswell on the Grand Tour: Italy, Corsica and France, 1765-1766, (London: Heinemann, 1955) 340.
12 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 205.
13 Boswell, An Account of Corsica 139.
14 Scott and Pottle, eds., Private Papers, vol. 7: 80.
15 “Corsican Gazette,” London Chronicle 4 Oct. 1766: 366
16 Boswell. An Account of Corsica 225.
17 A Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Shelburne, on the Fatal Consequences of Suffering the French to Invade Corsica, and Possess the Sovereignty of the Mediterranean Seas (London: Flexney, 1768).
18 “Letters from Amsterdam,” London Chronicle 28 Apr. 1768: 402.
19 Joseph Cawthorne, letter to James Boswell, 22 Sept. 1769, ms. C 771, Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
20 James Boswell, British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans: By Several Hands (London: Printed for Edward and Charles Dilly in the Poultry, 1769) VII-VIII.
21 John Fraser Ramsey, “Anglo-French Relations, 1763-1770: ‘A Study of Choiseul’ s Foreign Policy’” University of California Publications in History 17.3 (1939): 187-91.
22 Boswell, British Essays 129.
23 British Essays 27-40.
24 British Essays VI-VII.
25 British Essays X.
26 British Essays [III-IV].
27 Rev. of British Essays, Critical Review 27 (1769): 68.
28 James Boswell, “Verses in the Character of a Corsican at Shakespeare’s Jubilee, at Stratford-upon Avon, Sept. 6, 1769,” London Magazine 38 (1769): 451-56.
29 James Boswell: The Late Years, 1769-1795 (London: Heinemann, 1984) 482-83.
30 James Boswell, letter to Pasquale de Paoli, 31 March 1794, ms. L 1025, Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
31 James Boswell, letter to Pasquale de Paoli [? March 1795,] ms. L 1027, Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
32 James Boswell, “Notes for a Projected Life of General Oglethorpe,” ms. M 208, Boswell Papers, Yale University Library.
Table des illustrations
Légende | Fig.1. Cesare Ripa, Corsica, Iconologia (Siena, 1613) 1: 430. |
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URL | http://books.openedition.org/psn/docannexe/image/3810/img-1.jpg |
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Légende | Fig. 2. James Boswell, Frontispiece, British Essays in Favour of the Brave Corsicans: By Several Hands (London: Printed for Edward and Charles Dilly, in the Poultry, 1769) [N. pag.]. |
URL | http://books.openedition.org/psn/docannexe/image/3810/img-2.jpg |
Fichier | image/jpeg, 404k |
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